Chapters 23-26

Truman’s Domestic Policy
- Taft-Hartley Act (1947) - Outlawed "closed" (all-union) shops, made unions liable for damages that resulted from jurisdictional dispute among themselves, and required union leaders to take a non-communist oath.
- Civil Rights (Executive Order 9981 - abolished racial discrimination in the United States Armed Forces and eventually led to the end of segregation in the services.)
- Presidential Succession Act - determines the order of succession if the President is unable to fulfill their duties
- 22nd Amendment - 2 terms
- GI Bill - Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, provided educational and financial benefits to World War II veterans.
- Economic Boom
- Emergence of the Sunbelt - South & Southwest → Affordable central air conditioning in homes made these states more attractive, leading to a migration of people from the North and Midwest to the Sunbelt.
- Levittown and the development of suburbia - Levittown, a suburban community built by William J. Levitt, played a significant role in the development of suburbia. Levitt purchased large tracts of land near major cities and built mass-produced, low-cost homes.
- Baby Boom - between 1946 and 1964. After World War II, there was a surge in marriages and a desire to start families. 50 mil added
- Dr. Spock - renowned pediatrician and author- child-rearing practices in the post-World War II era. His book, "The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care," published in 1946, became a bestseller and provided guidance to millions of parents on raising children.
- Truman’s Loyalty Program - 1947; required federal employees to undergo loyalty checks and investigations to ensure they were not affiliated with communist or fascist organizations.
- The Fair Deal - 1949; The Fair Deal included initiatives to expand social welfare programs, increase the minimum wage, promote civil rights, and provide affordable housing.
- During Truman’s presidency, how was communism contained @ home?
  - Anti-Communist Crusade - Govt and orgs launched campaigns to raise awareness about communism
  - McCarran Internal Security Bill - Required communist organizations to register with the government and made it illegal to advocate for the overthrow of the U.S. government.
  - The Rosenbergs - a Jewish couple accused of passing atomic secrets to the Soviet Union. They were convicted of espionage in 1951 and executed in 1953.
  - House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) - investigated alleged communist activities in the United States. It held hearings and interrogated individuals suspected of being communists or having communist ties. This led to the blacklisting of many individuals.
  - Alger Hiss - Whittaker Chambers (a former communist) told the committee that this man had passed classified information through him to the Soviet Union.
  - McCarthy (aka. McCarthyism) - The practice named after Senator Joseph McCarthy characterized by allegations without proof or based on slight evidence
  - Hollywood 10 - refused to testify before the HUAC
- Election of 1948: The Controversy; “Dewey Defeats Truman”?????? He embarked on a "whistle-stop" campaign, traveling across the country by train and delivering speeches directly to the voters. His populist approach resonated with many Americans, and he was able to gain support.
Truman’s Foreign Policy He implemented the Truman Doctrine, which aimed to contain the spread of communism.
- Aftermath of WWII United States emerged as a superpower, and Europe was divided into two spheres of influence: the capitalist West, led by the U.S., and the communist East, led by the Soviet Union.
  - Nuremberg Trials - a series of military tribunals held after WWII to prosecute prominent Nazi leaders for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide. These trials established the principle that individuals could be held accountable for their actions during times of war.
  - The German Question - Dividing Germany - Germany was divided into four occupation zones controlled by the United States, Soviet Union, Britain, and France. The division was meant to be temporary, but tensions between the Soviet Union and Western powers led to the permanent division of Germany into East and West.
  - U.S.’s role in the reconstruction of Japan - Under General Douglas MacArthur's leadership, the U.S. implemented democratic reforms, rebuilt the economy, and helped Japan establish a new constitution.
- What is the Cold War? When did it take place? 1947 - 1991
- What were the roots of the Cold War?
  - Stalin’s “spheres of influence”,
  - Churchill’s Iron Curtain speech,
  - Bretton Woods Conference (Establishment of the International Monetary Fund, & World Bank),
  - United Nations,
  - San Francisco Conference (1945) (Created UN)
  - Security Council
  - What was the policy of containment? What are examples of the U.S. containing communism abroad?
    - Long Telegram by George Kennan: telegram sent by US ambassador to the USSR that stated that Soviet nationalism had grown so strong that only "toughness" could be used on the Soviets; spurred US nationalism and adoption of the Truman "tough method"
    - Truman Doctrine: Provided military and economic aid to countries threatened by communism
    - Marshall Plan: Economic assistance to war-torn European countries to help rebuild their economies and prevent the spread of communism
    - National Security Act: Restructured US military and intelligence agencies- It created the Department of Defense, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the National Security Council (NSC).
    - NSC Number 68: as a classified document produced by the NSC in 1950. It outlined a more aggressive approach to containing communism, including increased military spending and the development of nuclear weapons
    - Atomic Energy Commission: established civilian control over nuclear development and gave the president sole authority over the use of atomic weapons in warfare.
    - Hydrogen Bomb
    - Who belonged to NATO vs. the Warsaw Pact? What was each group’s purpose?
    - How was the U.S. dealing with the USSR’s influence in Germany? The Berlin Crisis . . . Berlin Airlift (1948 – 1949)
    - How was the U.S. “containing” the USSR vs. China? With the USSR, the U.S. engaged in a nuclear arms race, developed military alliances like NATO, and implemented policies to counter Soviet influence in Europe. In the case of China, the U.S. supported the Nationalist government of Chiang Kai-shek during the Chinese Civil War but ultimately failed to prevent the communist victory led by Mao Zedong.
    - How was the U.S. dealing with the influence of communism in Korea?
      - John MacArthur - Commander of US forces during Korean war; drove back North Korean Invaders but was eventually removed from power.
      - Korean War (1950 – 1953) - Nk (supported by USSR and China) invaded SK
      - Stalemate- How Korean war ended
      - 38th parallel- dividing line between north and south Korea

Eisenhower (1953 – 1961) - REPUBLICAN

Domestic Policy
- Election of 1952 - Defeated Adlai Stevenson. First election w/o incumbent pres on the ballot.
- Checkers Speech- Ike’s running mate, Richard NIXON
- Modern Republicanism- Emphasized a balanced approach to government, advocating for fiscal responsibility, limited government intervention, and focus on individual freedom and free-market principles.
- Baby Boom continues,
- Consumerism, Prosperity,
- Growth of Suburbia (Levittown)- Suburbanization trend was fueled by factors such as increased homeownership, the availability of affordable housing, and the desire for a suburban lifestyle.
- White Flight- White Americans moved from urban areas to the suburbs. This movement was influenced by factors such as the desire for better schools, safer neighborhoods, and the perception of suburban living as more desirable.
- Urban Renewal- To revitalize modern urban areas. These projects involved the demolition of older buildings and the construction of new infrastructure.
- Conformity vs. Rebellion
- Rock & Roll (Elvis)
- The Sunbelt,
- Warren Court- Supreme Court during Eisenhower's presidency, led by Chief Justice Earl Warren. The court handed down several landmark decisions that expanded the application of liberalism, ended racial segregation, and carved out vital protections for criminal defendants.
- Interstate Highway System-
- Broader Social Security- Social Security Act of 1935 was expanded to provide broader coverage and benefits. This included the extension of Social Security to more workers and the introduction of disability benefits.
- Refugee Relief for Cold War refugees- programs to provide relief and support to refugees fleeing communist regimes. This included assistance to refugees from countries such as Hungary and Cuba.
- McCarthy investigates the army- televised hearings known as the Army-McCarthy Hearings. McCarthy's investigations into alleged communist influence in the U.S. Army ultimately led to his censure by the Senate.
- AFL-CIO merger- in 1955; brought together different labor unions and strengthened the labor movement
- new social contract- a renewed agreement between the government and the people, focusing on issues such as economic stability, social welfare, and individual rights.
- Election of 1956- rematch of 1952, won again
- National Defense Education Act- aimed to improve education in science, mathematics, and foreign languages. It was a response to the perceived need for a well-educated workforce during CW
- teenagers of the 1960s – conformity- growing counterculture movement challenging societal norms and promoting rebellion against conformity. This included changes in fashion, experimentation with drugs, and a rejection of traditional values.
Foreign Policy
- Key Terms:
  - The Cold War:
    - Korea Armistice (1953)- Korean War ended w this. Agreement established a ceasefire and created a demilitarized zone along the 38th parallel.
    - Domino Theory-
    - Secretary of State John Foster Dulles’ policy of Massive Retaliation- emphasized the threat of massive nuclear retaliation in response to any aggression by the Soviet Union
    - Brinkmanship- pushing dangerous situations to the brink of war to force the other side to back down.
    - Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)- if both the United States and the Soviet Union possessed enough nuclear weapons to destroy each other, neither side would initiate a nuclear war due to the certainty of mutual destruction.
    - Duck & Cover- a civil defense campaign in the US to educate people (particularly children) on how to protect themselve sin the event of a nuclear attack
    - Khrushchev replaced Stalin- 1953; de-Stalinization; more moderate approach
    - UN Action in the Suez Canal (Egypt)- UN intervened, calling for removal of foreign (British and French) forces from Egypt
    - Eisenhower Doctrine (Middle East)- US would provide assistance to any middle eastern country threatened by communism.
    - Hungarian Revolts – Warsaw Pact Invasion- 1956, Hungary experienced a popular uprising against Soviet control. The Soviet Union, along with other Warsaw Pact countries, invaded Hungary to suppress the revolt and maintain control over the country.
    - Sputnik (1957) – The Space Race, World’s first artificial satellite. Marked beginning of the space race
    - U-2 Incident, Spy plane
    - IKE’s Farewell Address (A warning on what?), dangers of allowing a Military-Industrial Complex to take control of the United States.
    - Cuba becomes communist – U.S. breaks relations: 1959: Fidel Castro led a revolution in Cuba, overthrowing the US-led government & establishing a communist regime. Led to strained relations.
  - Other:
    - SEATO (Defensive Alliances – SE Treaty Organization)- Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, was a defensive alliance formed in 1954. It aimed to prevent the spread of communism in Southeast Asia and included countries such as the United States, Britain, France, Australia, and several Southeast Asian nations.
    - Alaska & Hawaii becomes states

John F. Kennedy (1961 – 1963) - DEMOCRAT

Domestic Policy
- Election of 1960 (role of TV debates), John F. Kennedy vs Richard nixon
- The New Frontier, Liberal activism- civil rights, poverty, and education. It called for increased government intervention and investment in these areas.
- Inaugural Speech (Ask not . . .)- Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country." This statement reflected his call for civic engagement and public service.
- Aid to Education- National Defense Education Act to improve science and math education
- Space Race (Alan Shepherd (1st American in space) John Glen (1st American to orbit the Earth)),
- Assassination of JFK & Camelot- a time of hope, idealism, and cultural vibrancy.
Foreign Policy
- Flexible Defense Policy (deterrence vs. massive retaliation)- Kennedy adopted a flexible defense policy that moved away from the concept of massive retaliation. This approach emphasized a more nuanced response to threats, including the use of conventional forces and limited military action.
- Alliance for Progress (Latin America)- to promote economic development and social reform in Latin American countries. It aimed to counter the appeal of communism and improve relations with the region.
- Peace Corps-
- Test Ban Treaty (1963)- 1963, prohibited the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater.
- Paris Summit Conference- Russian leader Nikita Khrushchev lashes out. Outburst angered Eisenhower and doomed any chances for successful talks or negotiations at the summit.
- Berlin Wall-
- Hotline- a direct communication link, known as the hotline, was established between US and Soviet Union. It allowed for direct and immediate communication to prevent misunderstandings and reduce the risk of nuclear war.
- Space Race (Mercury Mission)- put astronauts in space and bring them back alive
- Cuba – Castro, Bay of Pigs & Cuban Missile Crisis-

Lyndon B. Johnson (1963 – 1969) - DEMOCRAT

Domestic Policy
- Taking over from JFK,
- Election of 1964: Won against Republican Barry Goldwater.
- 24th Amendment: Prohibited the Poll Tax.
- The Great Society & Liberalism: Government intervention to promote social welfare.
  - War on Poverty: TO reduce poverty through programs like the Office of Economic opportunitu/
  - increasing size of “welfare state”:
  - Civil Rights Act (1964): sought to undo the damage of Jim Crow policies, outlawing segregation in public spaces and employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, sex, religion, or national origin
  - ^^ Equal Opportunity Commission- to enforce laws against workplace discrimination
  - Job Corps (1964): program that provided vocational training and employment opportunities for young people from disadvantaged backgrounds.
  - Food Stamp Act (1964): expanded the federal food stamp program, providing assistance to low-income individuals and families to purchase food.
  - Medicaid & Medicare (1965): Medicaid provided healthcare coverage for low-income individuals and families, while Medicare provided healthcare coverage for elderly and disabled individuals.
  - Federal Aid to Education - Head Start: Head Start aimed to provide comprehensive early childhood education and support services to children from low-income families.
  - Dept. of Housing & Urban Development (HUD – 1965): federal agency responsible for addressing housing and urban development issues in the United States. HUD's mission includes providing affordable housing, combating housing discrimination, and promoting community development.
  - National Endowment for the Arts: provides funding and support for artistic and cultural projects.
  - Affirmative Action: promoting equal opportunities for historically disadvantaged groups, particularly in education and employment. Consider factors such as race in decision=making processes.
  - Immigration & Nationality Act (1965): Hart-Celler Act- abolished the national origins quota system that had restricted immigration to the United States. It introduced a new system based on family reunification and employment preferences.
  - Voting Rights Act (1965): prohibited discriminatory practices such as literacy tests and poll taxes, and it provided federal oversight of elections in areas with a history of voter discrimination.
  - Deficit spending (guns vs. butter): the trade-off between military spending (guns) and domestic social programs (butter).
  - Thurgood Marshall: prominent civil rights lawyer and the first African American Supreme Court Justice. He played a crucial role in landmark cases such as Brown v. Board of Education, which led to the desegregation of public schools.
  - LBJ’s decision to not run for Election of 1968- American involvement in Vietnam War & rising American casualties made him wildly unpopular.
  - Supporters of Liberalism: The Warren Court
  - Opponents of Liberalism- conservatives who criticized the expansion of government power, social welfare programs, and the perceived erosion of traditional values.
    - Conservative Movement:
      - Barry Goldwater (Election of 1964): Conservative Republican senator who emphasized limited government, individual freedom, and a strong defense.
      - Opposition to Warren Court: Believed it was overstepping its bounds and legislating from the bench.
      - Election of Nixon in 1968: His campaign focused on law and order, appealing to those concerned about social unrest and the Vietnam war.
      - George Wallace – Election 1968: Segregationist governor of Alabama, 3rd party candidate
    - New Left: In the 1960s, American students formed what became known as this. In 1962, a group of students gathered in Michigan to form an organization to give voice to their demands: Students for a Democratic Society. This was a student radicalism organization that was determined to build a new politics.
Foreign Policy
- Space Race:
  - Gemini Mission: a series of manned space missions conducted by NASA between 1964 and 1966. To develop and test the skills and technologies necessary for the Apollo program, which aimed to land astronauts on the moon.
  - Apollo Mission: NASA's mission to land humans on the moon. It included a series of manned missions, with Apollo 11 being the most famous. In 1969, Apollo 11 successfully landed astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on the moon, marking a significant achievement in space exploration.
Why is 1968 seen as such a pivotal year in American history – as a turning point?

It's considered by some historians to have been the year of the greatest social upheaval in modern times in America. Civil Rights Movement, Anti-War protests, Political turmoil, Youth activism, Cultural shits, and more.

Richard Nixon (1969 – 1974) - REPUBLICAN

Domestic Policy
- Election of 1968: Nixon’s remarkable political comeback by winning the Republican nomination. Humphrey could not overcome the divide in his party, so Nixon won by a sliver.
- “silent majority”: Nixon campaigned as the champion of the silent majority - ordinary Americans who believe that change had gone too far and called for a renewed commitment to “law and order”
- New Federalism: Offered federal “block grants” to the states to spend as they saw fit, rather than for specific purposes dictated by Washington. President Nixon's program to return power and tax dollars to the states and cities; the key aspect was revenue sharing
- Kent & Jackson State incidents (1970):
- Kent State: Killing of four antiwar protesters by Ohio National Guard at Kent State University.
- Jackson State: Killing of two police officers by police at Jackson State University.
- Environmental Protection Act (EPA) created: The EPA oversaw programs to combat water and air pollution, cleaned up hazardous wastes, and required “environmental impact” statements from any project that received federal funding.
  - Nixon lavishly spent on social services and environmental initiatives
- Clean Air Act: Set air quality standards for carbon monoxide and other chemicals released by cars and factories and led to a dramatic decline in air pollution.
- Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA): Sent inspectors into the nation’s workplaces.
- National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB): Instructed automobile makers on how to make their cars safer.
- Endangered Species Act: prohibited spending federal funds on any project that might extinguish an animal species.
- Pentagon Papers: Published by The Times; a classified report prepared by the Defense Department that traces American involvement in Vietnam back to WWII and revealed how successive presidents had misled the American people about it.
- New York Times v. U.S. (1971): Freedom of the press decision; it rejected Nixon’s request for an injunction to halt publication.
- 26th Amendment: Was ratified in 1971 and lowered the voting age from 21 to 18. This amendment was a response to the Vietnam War and the argument that if 18-year-olds were old enough to be drafted and fight in the war, they should also have the right to vote.
- Equal Rights Amendment passed Congress: Equality of rights under the law which could not be abridged on account of sex; was approved by Congress in 1972 and sent to the states for ratification. It was designed to eliminate obstacles to the full participation of women in public life (opposition thought it would subtract from women's role as a homemaker).
- Title IX of Education Amendments: a section of the Educational Amendments of 1972 that prohibits sex-based discrimination in educational institutions that receive federal funding.
- Watergate Scandal: A scandal involving an illegal break-in at the Democratic National Committee offices in 1972 by members of President Nixon's reelection campaign staff. Illegal help to get reelected.
- Nixon’s resignation: Nixon resigned in 1974 before his watergate court trial could begin.
- Wounded Knee & American Indian Movement (AIM – 1973): The American Indian Movement (AIM) was a Native American civil rights organization founded in 1968. In 1973, AIM members and supporters occupied the town of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, to protest against the federal government's treatment of Native Americans. The occupation lasted for 71 days and drew attention to the issues of Native American rights and sovereignty.
Foreign Policy
- Apollo 11 (1969): Successfully landed the first humans on the moon. Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the first people to set foot on the lunar surface, while Michael Collins orbited the moon in the command module.
- Détente: A period of improved relations and reduced tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War. It involved diplomatic efforts, arms control negotiations, and cultural exchanges aimed at easing the rivalry
- Nixon order bombing/invasion of Cambodia: Ordered troops into Cambodia to disrupt the Ho Chi Minh Trail and other supply lines used by North Vietnam, even though Cambodia was neutral. In 1970, he ordered air and ground strikes in Cambodia. This decision sparked protests and further intensified opposition to the war.
- Nixon visits China (1972): Following a series of secret negotiations with Chinese leaders, Nixon traveled to Beijing in February 1972 to meet with Mao Zedong. The visit initiated diplomatic exchanges that led to US recognition of the Communist govt in 1979.
- Nixon visits USSR: "Talks" pointed at the Soviet Union to reduce the advances in the arms race between the US and the Soviet Union. While they did not end the arms race, they were a significant step toward reducing Cold War tensions
- Anti-Ballistic Missile & SALT I treaties (1972): The Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty limited the deployment of anti-ballistic missile systems by US & USSR. The SALT I Treaty aimed to limit the number of strategic nuclear weapons possessed by both countries.
- War Powers Act: The most vigorous assertion of congressional control over foreign policy in the nation’s history; it required the president to seek congressional approval for the commitment of American troops overseas.
- Arab-Israeli War (Yom Kippur): Arabs launched a surprise attack during Yom Kippur. U.S. support for Israel during the war led to OPEC boycotting the U.S., creating an energy crisis
- Arab Oil Embargo: OPEC boycotted the US and Arab oil-producing countries imposed an oil embargo on all countries that supported Israel.
- Nixon Doctrine: Announced in 1969, outlined a new approach to U.S. foreign policy. It emphasized the need for other countries to take more responsibility for their own defense, with the United States providing support and assistance.
- Munich Olympics: Palestinians were protesting against Israel. They were mad that Israel was created after WWII on their land. Negotiations broke down and a firefight erupted. 11 Israeli athletes were killed.

Gerald Ford (1974 – 1977) - REPUBLICAN

Domestic Policy
- Pardon of Nixon: Shortly after taking office in 1974, Ford granted Nixon a full pardon for any crimes he may have committed during his presidency, specifically related to the Watergate scandal. This decision was met with mixed reactions.
- Stagflation: High prices and unemployment. Ford implemented various measures to combat stagflation, including tax cuts and attempts to curb government spending, but the economy continued to struggle.
- Whip Inflation Now: a campaign slogan promoting Ford's ideas to help the recession and inflation problems; a program by the Ford administration to curb inflation and dramatic price increases by putting pressure on businesses to lower prices and deter consumers from hoarding goods.
Foreign Policy
- 1st OPEC oil-price increase: Due to the oil embargo.
- South Vietnam falls to communists (1975): The fall of Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, marked the end of the war and the reunification of Vietnam under communist rule. This event was a significant blow to U.S. foreign policy and had a lasting impact on America.
- Helsinki Accords: A series of agreements signed in 1975 by the United States, Soviet Union, and other European countries. The accords aimed to improve relations between East and West during the Cold War and addressed issues such as human rights, security, and cooperation.

The Vietnam War (1945 – 1975)

Truman
- Ho Chi Minh: France tried to retake Indochina claimed by Japan after ww2. Wanting independence, native Vietnamese and Cambodians resisted. French imperialism had the effect of increasing support for nationalist and Communist leader Ho Chi Minh.
- Viet Minh: Truman’s government started to give U.S. military aid to the French while China and the Soviet Union aided the Viet Minh guerrillas led by Ho Chi Minh. French army defeat.
- Role of Japan & France
IKE
- Geneva Conference (1954): By the terms of the Geneva Conference, Vietnam was to be temporarily divided at the 17th parallel until a general election could be held. In North Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh established a Communist dictatorship.
- Ngo Dinh Diem: In South Vietnam, a government emerged under Ngo Dinh Diem, whose support came largely from anti-communist, Catholic, and urban Vietnamese, many of whom had fled from Communist rule in the North.
- VietCong: North Vietnam’s communist guerilla organization.
- Ho Chi Minh Trails: A network of supply routes used by the North Vietnamese to transport troops, weapons, and supplies to the Viet Cong in the south. These trails were located in neighboring Laos and Cambodia, which were used as sanctuaries by the North Vietnamese.
- Domino Theory: if South Vietnam fell under Communist control, one nation after another in Southeast Asia would also fall, until Australia and New Zealand were in dire danger.
- Aid & military advisors: From 1955 to 1961, the US government gave over $1 billion in economic and military aid to South Vietnam in an effort to build a stable, anti-communist state.

JFK
- Diem assassination: South Vietnamese leader Ngo Dinh Diem lost control of the countryside to the communist Viet Cong. Diem resisted American advice to broaden his government’s base of support. 1963: Buddhist demonstrations against his regime, the US approved a coup that led to Diem’s death.
- Self-immolation: Buddhist monks set themselves on fire to protest Diem’s regime and his persecution of Buddhists.
- Buddhism: Diem was brutal to his opposing forces, especially buddhists
- , aid & military advisors
LBJ
- Gulf of Tonkin “incident”:1964- North Vietnamese vessels encountered an American ship on a spy mission off its coast. North Vietnamese patrol boats fired on the ship so LBJ proclaimed that the US was a victim of “aggression.”
- Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964): authorized the US president to take “all necessary measures” to repel armed attack in Vietnam. Only two senators voted against the blank check.
- Operation Rolling Thunder: A systematic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. Planners hoped to provide a moral boost to South Vietnam forces.
- Educational Deferments, the draft: Young men were drafted for the war but college students were exempted from it. Therefore, the burden of fighting fell on the poor.
- *Problems for Americans (guerilla tactics, terrain): Brutal conduct, mistreated American prisoners,
- Weapons used (napalm, Agent Orange): US spread chemicals that destroyed forests to deprive the Viet Cong of hiding places and dropped bombs filled with napalm (jelly gasoline) that burned people’s skin. Agent Orange was a herbicide used to control vegetation.
- Tet Offensive (1968) as a turning point: Viet Cong and North Vietnamese troops launched uprisings in cities in South Vietnam, surprising American troops. The US drove back the offensive but inflicted heavy losses. The intensity of fighting shattered American confidence back home.
- My Lai Massacre (1968): A company of American troops killed 350 South Vietnamese civilians. Lieutenant William Calley directed the atrocity.
- LBJ’s decision to not run for re-election: LBJ was troubled by divisions and turbulence in AMerican society and by an increasingly popular war that was closely tied to his administration.
Nixon
- Promise for Election of 1968: Nixon declared he had a “secret plan” to end the war → announced the new policy of Vietnamization.
- Vietnamization: American troops would gradually be withdrawn while South Vietnamese soldiers, backed by American bombing, did more and more of the fighting.
  - Neither limited the war nor ended the antiwar movement.
- Pentagon Papers (1971): Read above
- War Powers Act (1973): Read Above
- Paris Peace Agreement (1973): Nixon negotiated a settlement in vietnam: the final withdrawal of American troops. The compromise left the government of South Vietnam but also left North Vietnamese and Viet Cong soldiers in control of parts of the South.
Ford
- South Vietnam falls to North/communists (1975): South Vietnamese capital of Saigon fell to the North Vietnamese army, ending the Vietnam war.
Effects of the Vietnam War:
- Loss of life: 58,000 Americans killed, 3-4 million Viets killed
- Financial costs: $100 billion cost
- Questioning of federal gov’t: Vietnam undermined Americans’ confidence in their own institutions and challenged long-standing beliefs about the country and its purposes.

Counterculture

Counterculture Overall
- Jack Kerouac & the Beat Movement (1957): The Beats - a small group of poets and writers - rallied against mainstream culture. Novelist Jack Kerouac coined the term “beat.” His book On the Road became a bible for young people who rejected the era’s middle class culture.
- Rock & Roll (Elvis): Brought hard-driving rhythms and sexually provocative movements of black musicians and dancers to young white audiences. Elvis (very openly sexual performance style) became very popular.
- Malvina Reynolds’ Little Boxes (1962): The song is a social satire about the development of suburbia and associated conformist middle class attitudes.
- 26th Amendment (1971): lowered the voting age
- Hippies: Rejected the values and established institutions of the culture that emerged after WWII ended and went against accepted society turning to alternative lifestyle.
- Yippies: Youth International Party; Introduced humor and theatricality as elements of protest. Yippie founder Abbie Hoffman showered dollar bills onto the floor of the NYSE bringing trading to a halt.
- Woodstock (1969): Rock festival in upstate NY; brought together thousands of young people to celebrate their alternative lifestyle and independence from adult authority.
- Pop Art (Warhol): Green Coca-Color Bottles = famous symbol of American consumerism to celebrate abundance and question the sterile uniformity of 1950s consumer culture.
The New Left
- Students for a Democratic Society (SDS): an offshoot of the socialist League for industrial democracy. 60 college students adopted a document that summarized the beliefs of student protesters.
- Port Huron Statement (1962): Most of the text was criticisms of institutions, from political parties to corporations, unions, and the military-industrial complex. Wanted the establishment to be a democracy of individual participation -- became the standard by which students judged social conditions.
- University of CA Berkeley & the Free Speech Movement (1964 – 1965): A new rule prohibiting political groups from using a central area of campus to spread their ideas sparked opposition → protests.
Anti-War Protests
- Teach-ins (1965): Began at the University of Michigan in 1965 to protest the Vietnam Wa; became a tradition in American colleges.
- Hawks vs. doves: Hawks advocated aggressive foreign policy based on strong millitary power; doves try to resolve international conflict without the threat of force.
- Credibility Gap: Inability of Americans to believe what the Johnson administration told them about Vietnam.
- ***Fulbright Hearings (1966 – 1967):
- *Students for a Democratic Society – Columbia University Protest (1968), The Weathermen (1969), Democratic National Convention Riots (1968), Vietnam Moratorium Day (1969), Woodstock (1969), Exposure to the My Lai Massacre (1969), Kent State & Jackson State (1970)

The Civil Rights Movement

Why is 1965 seen as a turning point in the Civil Rights Movement? B/c of the passage of the Voting Rights Act.
Thurgood Marshall and the NAACP (1931 – 1961) – Was a prominent lawyer for the NAACP, bringing Brown v. Board of Education before Supreme Court Supreme Court Justice (1967 – 1991) and leading to the desegregation of public schools.
Role of Warren Court: The court handed down several major decisions that expanded civil rights and liberties.
FDR
- Asa Philip Randolph’s threat to “March on Washington” (1941): Randolph threatened to organize a march to protest racial discrimination in employment and the military → the creation of the FEPC.
- Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) (1942): Founded by James Farmer and other members of the Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR) that espoused nonviolent direct action. It organized the Freedom Rides in 1961.
- Double V Campaign (1941 – 1945): Victory @ home and abroad during WW2
- Fair Employment Commission (1942): Was created to monitor compliance w/ executive order against racial discrimination in employment.
Truman
- Executive Order 9981 (1948): Desegregated armed forces
- Jackie Robinson & desegregation of baseball (1947): Jackie Robinson was the first African American to play in Major League Baseball in the modern era. He broke the color barrier when he joined the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947
IKE
- Malcolm X & the Nation of Islam (1952 – 1964): Malcolm X was a practitioner of the Black Muslim faith, which combines the religious aspects of Islam with the ideas of both black power and black nationalism. Advocated for black separatism and self-defense, challenging the nonviolent approach of other civil rights leaders.
- Brown v. Board of Education (1954): declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional.
- Rosa Parks Ignites Bus Boycott (Dec. 1, 1955): Her arrest sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott, a year-long protest against segregated seating on buses.
- Montgomery Bus Boycotts (1955 – 1956):
- Browder v. Gayle (1956): Racial segregation on buses was unconstitutional, effectively ending segregation on public transportation in Montgomery.
- Declaration of Constitutional Principles (aka. Southern Manifesto) (Feb. & March 1956): a document signed by Southern members of Congress in opposition to the Supreme Court's ruling in Brown v. Board of Education. It expressed their commitment to maintaining racial segregation and resisting desegregation efforts.
- Formation of Southern Christian Leadership Conference (1957): Was an offshoot of the Montgomery Improvement Association, led by Martin Luther King and other civil rights leaders.
- Martin Luther King Jr.’s Nonviolent Civil Disobedience:
- Civil Rights Act of 1957: first federal civil rights legislation since Reconstruction. It aimed to protect the voting rights of African Americans and establish a federal commission to investigate civil rights violations.
- Integration of Central High/”Little Rock Nine” (Sept. 1957): Federal troops had to be sent down to help
- Motown Music (1959): Motown played an important role in the racial integration of popular music as an African American-owned label that achieved crossover success.
- Formation of Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (1960): By young activists
- Greensboro Lunch Counter Sit-Ins (Feb. 1960): four African American college students staged a sit-in at a segregated lunch counter, sparking a wave of similar protests across the country
JFK
- Freedom Rides (May – December 1961),
- James Meredith & University of Mississippi (Fall 1962): Faced significant opposition to being admitted from the state government. But federal authorities allowed him to finally be admitted.
- King’s Letter from Birmingham Jail (April 16, 1963) – What did it say? The importance of nonviolent resistance in the fight for civil rights What did it encourage? Continued peaceful protests and an end to racial justice.
- Governor Wallace & University of Alabama (June 11, 1963): Wallace attempted to block the enrollment of two African American students, Vivian Malone and James Hood, at the University. Kennedy federalized the Alabama National Guard to ensure their admission.
- March on Washington for Jobs & Freedom (August 28, 1963): Where Dr. King delivered his “I Have a Dream” speech.
LBJ
- Civil Rights Act (1964): prohibited discrimination in public places based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.
- 24th Amendment (1964): abolished the poll tax
- Freedom Summer (1964): voter registration and education campaign
- Murders of Civil Rights Workers during Freedom Summer (1964): James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, and Michael Schwerner were murdered by the KKK in Mississippi.
- John L. Lewis & SNCC: main labor leader who supported them.
- Fannie Lou Hamer, cofounder of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (1964): MFDP challenged the all-white Mississippi democratic party and south to represent black voters at the 1964 Democratic national convention.
- Voting Rights Act (1965): removed barriers to black enfranchisement in the South, banning poll taxes, literacy tests, and other measures that effectively prevented African Americans from voting
- Equal Opportunity Commission (1965): to enforce federal laws prohibiting employment discrimination
- Assassination of Malcolm X (Feb. 1, 1965),
- Selma March (March 21, 1965 – March 25, 1965): Alabama protests to demand black voting rights, met w/ violent opposition.
- LBJ’s Affirmative Action Speech (June 4, 1965),
- Watts Riots (Aug. 11 – 16, 1965): a series of violent protests in Los Angeles, sparked by an incident of police brutality against an African American motorist
- Black Power (1966): A slogan used to reflect solidarity and racial consciousness, used by Malcolm X. It meant that equality could not be given, but had to be seized by a powerful, organized Black community.
- Stokely Carmichael popularized the term Black Power (June 1966)
- Black Panther Party (1966): Founded by Bobby Seale and Huey Newton, they believed that racism was an inherent part of the U.S. capitalist society and were militant, self-styled revolutionaries for Black Power.
- Thurgood Marshall & Supreme Court Justice (1967 – 1991):
- Fair Housing Act (1968): prevented housing discrimination
- Kerner Commission Report (Feb. 1968): to investigate the causes of urban riots
- Assassination of MLK (April 4, 1968):
Nixon
- Griggs v. Duke Power (1971): “disparate impact”: employment practices that disproportionately affected minority groups could be considered discriminatory
- Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971): upheld busing programs that aimed to speed up the racial integration of public schools in the United States.

Other Civil Rights Movements

Women’s Rights:
- Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique (1963): Spoke about feminist protest and the boredom of suburban housewifery.
- concepts of “cult of domesticity”:
- Equal Pay Act (1963): required equal pay for equal work, regardless of gender
- National Organization for Women (NOW - 1966): Became the leading advocacy group for women’s rights. Focused on issues such as equal pay, reproductive rights, and ending gender-based discrimination
- Gloria Steinem’s Ms. Magazine (1971): provided viewpoints of feminist issues and familiarized its audience with the arguments and issues of the women's movement.
- National Women’s Political Caucus (1971): to increase women's representation in politics and advocate for women's rights
- Roe v. Wade (1973): legalized abortion
- Counter to NOW: Phyllis Schlafly’s STOP ERA movement (1972 – 1982)- opposed the ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment, led by conservative activist Schlafly.
LGBT Rights:
- Harry Hay: founded the Mattachine Society in 1950: one of the first gay rights organizations in the United States. It aimed to provide support and advocacy for gay men and fight against discrimination and persecution.
- Stonewall Riots: June 1969, were a series of spontaneous demonstrations by members of the LGBTQ+ community in response to a police raid at the Stonewall Inn in New York City.
Latino Rights:
- Overcoming the bracero program: efforts made to address the exploitative conditions and unfair treatment faced by Mexican workers under the program.
- Cesar Chavez & United Farm Workers: fought for the rights of agricultural workers, particularly Latino farmworkers, and played a significant role in improving working conditions and advocating for better wages.
- Strikes
Asian American Rights:
- Delano grape strikes (1965 – 1970): led by Filipino American farmworkers, with the support of other ethnic groups, including Mexican Americans. The strikes aimed to improve working conditions and wages for agricultural workers in California's grape industry.
American Indian Rights:
- American Indian Movement (1968)
- Indians of All Tribes & the Occupation of Alcatraz (1969): occupation lasted for 19 months and drea attention to the struggles faced by Native Americans, including land rights and cultural preservation
- Red Power Movement: commonly expressed a growing sense of pan-Indian identity in the late 1960s among American Indians.
- US v. Wheeler (1978): recognized the authority of tribal courts to adjudicate criminal cases involving tribal members.
- Wounded Knee & American Indian Movement (AIM – 1973): soldiers of the US Army 7th Cavalry Regiment indiscriminately slaughtered hundreds of Sioux men, women, and children, marked the definitive end of Indian resistance to the encroachments of white settlers.
Environmentalism:
- Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962): brought attention to the harmful effects of pesticides, particularly DDT, on the environment and human health
- Wilderness Protection Act (1964): designated certain areas of federal land as wilderness, ensuring their preservation and protection from development.
- Water Quality Act (1965): address water pollution by establishing water quality standards and providing funding for water pollution control programs.
- Clean Air Act (1970): established air quality standards, regulated emissions from industrial sources, and promoted the use of cleaner technologies.
- Environmental Protection Act (1970): created the EPA
- Earth Day (1970)
- Occupational Safety & Health Administration (1970): to ensure safe and healthy working conditions for employees.
- Endangered Species Act (1973)

The Warren Court (1953 – 1969)

IKE:
- Brown v. Board of Education (1954) – (Overturning of Plessy v. Ferguson),
- Hernandez v. Texas (1954) – systematic exclusion of Mexican Americans from juries violated the Fourteenth Amendment's guarantee of equal protection under the law.
JFK:
- Engel v. Vitale (1962) – prayers in public schools violated the First Amendment's Establishment Clause, which prohibits the government from establishing or endorsing a religion.
- Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) – if a person is unable to afford their own attorney, the state must provide one for them.
LBJ:
- Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) – declared laws prohibiting the use of birth control as unconstitutional.
- Miranda v. Arizona (1966) – individuals must be informed of their rights, including the right to remain silent and the right to an attorney, before being interrogated by the police.
- Escobedo v. Illinois (1964) – that individuals have the right to have an attorney present during police interrogations once the investigation has focused on them as a suspect.