Vocabulary Term	Definition	Real-Life Example
Classical Conditioning]+: Basic concepts
Learning	Process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
Associative learning	Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)
Stimulus	An event or situation that evokes a response
Respondent behavior	Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
Operant behavior	Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
Cognitive learning	The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
Classical conditioning	A type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrates with Pavlov's classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)
Behaviorism	The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2)
Neutral stimulus (NS)	In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
Unconditioned response (UR)	In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food)
Unconditioned stimulus (US)	In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally & automatically - triggers an unconditioned response (UR)
Conditioned response (CR)	In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)	In classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)
Acquisition	In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neural stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
Higher-order conditioning	A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.
Extinction	The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
Spontaneous recovery	The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
Generalization	The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for similar stimuli to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
Discrimination	In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
Preparedness	A biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value.
Operant Conditioning: Basic Concepts
Operant conditioning	A type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher
Law of effect	Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
Operant chamber	In operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner Box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking
Reinforcement	In operant conditioning , any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Shaping	An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Positive reinforcement	Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
Negative reinforcement	Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response
Discriminative stimulus	In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement
Primary reinforcer	An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
Conditioned (secondary) reinforcer	A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer
Reinforcement schedule	A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
Continuous reinforcement schedule	Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule	Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continue reinforcement
Fixed-ratio schedule	In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
Variable-ratio schedule	In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
Fixed-interval schedule	In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
Variable-interval schedule	In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
Punishment	An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

Cognitive map	A mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it
Latent learning	Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Insight	A sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Observational learning	Learning by observing others (also called social learning)
Modeling	The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Mirror neurons	Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy
Prosocial behaviors	Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
Antisocial behaviors	Negative,destructive, harmful behavior. The opposite of prosocial behavior.

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