FINAL EXAM - NUTRITION

An Overview of Nutrition

1. Six Major Classes of Nutrients:

   • Carbohydrates (organic, macro, essential, provides energy, nutrient density: high in fruits and vegetables, energy density: high in sugars and processed foods)

   • Proteins (organic, macro, essential, provides energy, nutrient density: high in lean meats, beans, energy density: moderate in meats)

   • Lipids (organic, macro, essential, provides energy, nutrient density: high in nuts and seeds, energy density: high in oils and butter)

   • Vitamins (organic, micro, essential, does not provide energy, nutrient density: high in fruits and vegetables)

   • Minerals (inorganic, micro, essential, does not provide energy, nutrient density: high in leafy greens, energy density: low)

   • Water (inorganic, neither macro nor micro, essential, does not provide energy)

   Alcohol is not a nutrient; it provides 7 kcal/g but does not contribute essential nutrients.

   Energy Measurement: Energy is measured in kilocalories (kcal).

   Energy released per gram:

   • Carbohydrates: 4 kcal/g

   • Protein: 4 kcal/g

   • Lipids: 9 kcal/g

   • Alcohol: 7 kcal/g

2. Factors Influencing Food Choices:

   • Examples include cultural, emotional, social, personal preferences, and environmental influences.

3. Nutritional Assessments:

   • Anthropometric measurements: height, weight, BMI, waist circumference.

   • Biochemical assessments: blood tests, urine tests.

   • Clinical assessments: physical exams for signs of deficiency or excess.

   • Food recall: 24-hour or 3-day recall to track intake.

4. Reliable Sources of Nutritional Information:

   • Peer-reviewed journals, government health agencies (like the USDA), registered dietitians.

Nutritional Applications and Nutritional Issues

1. Definitions:

   • MyPlate: A food guide representing proportions of food groups on a plate.

   • Discretionary Kilocalories: Calories that can be consumed beyond those necessary for essential nutrients.

   • Nutrient Density: Amount of nutrients relative to calories.

   • Malnutrition: Imbalance of nutrients, can be undernutrition or overnutrition.

2. Characteristics of a Healthy Diet:

   • Balanced, varied, nutrient-dense foods (fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and healthy fats).

3. Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI):

   • RDA (Recommended Dietary Allowance): Daily intake level sufficient for 97-98% of healthy individuals.

   • AI (Adequate Intake): Based on observed or experimentally determined approximations.

   • EAR (Estimated Average Requirement): Intake that meets the needs of 50% of a population.

   • UL (Tolerable Upper Intake Level): Maximum daily intake unlikely to cause harm.

   • These DRI standards are for healthy individuals; special populations (those with diseases) may have different needs.

4. Dietary Guidelines for Americans:

   • 4 principles:

     1. Follow a healthy eating pattern across the lifespan.

     2. Focus on variety, nutrient density, and portion size.

     3. Limit added sugars, saturated fats, and sodium.

     4. Support healthy eating patterns for all.

   • Guidelines are revised every 5 years.

5. RDA: Stands for Recommended Dietary Allowance.

6. Five Major Food Groups (according to the USDA):

   • Fruits, vegetables, grains, protein foods, dairy.

7. USDA Food Patterns encourage greater consumption of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and dairy.

8. Goal of MyPlate: To promote balanced eating. It is based on amount of food from each category rather than calorie count.

9. Reading a Nutrition Label: The new label includes updated information, like added sugars, and serving sizes are more realistic.

10. Body Composition Measurement:

    • Gold standard: DEXA scan (Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry).

Carbohydrates

1. Carbohydrates:

   • Functions: Provide energy, support brain function, and maintain blood glucose.

   • Monosaccharides: Glucose, fructose.

   • Disaccharides: Sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose).

   • Polysaccharides: Starch, glycogen, fiber.

2. Excess Carbohydrates are stored as glycogen in muscles and liver, and excess beyond storage capacity is converted to fat.

3. Lactose Intolerance: A deficiency in lactase enzyme; dietary changes include avoiding dairy or using lactase supplements.

4. Carbohydrate Metabolism:

   • Insulin: Lowers blood glucose by converting glucose to glycogen.

   • Glucagon: Raises blood glucose by converting glycogen to glucose.

   • Epinephrine: Increases blood glucose by stimulating glycogen breakdown.

5. Blood Glucose Regulation Irregularities:

   • Normal Fasting Blood Sugar: 70–100 mg/dL.

   • Diabetes: High blood glucose.

   • Hypoglycemia: Low blood glucose.

6. Glycemic Index: Measures the effect of foods on blood sugar. Low GI foods are better as they raise blood sugar slowly.

7. Fiber: Important for digestive health, weight management, and reducing risk of heart disease.

Lipids

1. Lipids - Major functions:

   • Provide energy, store energy, protect organs, insulate the body, and help absorb fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K).

2. Types of Lipids:

   • Triglycerides: Most common form of fat in the body (three fatty acids attached to glycerol).

   • Sterols: Cholesterol is the most well-known sterol.

   • Phospholipids: Important in cell membranes.

3. Differences Between Fats:

   • Fats vs. Oils: Fats are solid at room temperature; oils are liquid.

   • Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fatty Acids:

     • Saturated fats: Solid at room temperature (e.g., butter, lard), typically found in animal products.

     • Unsaturated fats: Liquid at room temperature (e.g., olive oil, avocado), typically found in plant oils.

   • Monounsaturated vs. Polyunsaturated Fats:

     • Monounsaturated fats: Have one double bond (e.g., olive oil, avocado).

     • Polyunsaturated fats: Have multiple double bonds (e.g., fish oils, sunflower oil).

4. Cholesterol:

   • Sources: Found in animal products (meat, dairy).

   • Good vs. Bad:

     • LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein) is the "bad" cholesterol, which can lead to plaque buildup in arteries.

     • HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) is the "good" cholesterol, which helps remove LDL from the bloodstream.

5. Digestion and Absorption of Lipids:

   • Bile: Produced by the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and emulsifies fats, breaking them into smaller droplets for better digestion.

   • Lipid transport occurs via lipoproteins from the intestine to the liver.

6. Role of Bile:

   • Where it's made: The liver.

   • Stored: Gallbladder.

   • Function: Emulsifies fats, making them easier to digest.

7. Lipid Transport:

   • Digested lipids are transported via the lymphatic system and later enter the circulatory system, ultimately reaching the liver.

8. Lipoproteins:

   • LDL: "Bad" cholesterol, contributes to plaque buildup in arteries.

   • HDL: "Good" cholesterol, helps remove LDL from the bloodstream.

9. Fat Storage and Use:

   • Fat is stored in adipose tissue (fat cells).

   • It is used for energy when needed through lipolysis (breaking down fat into fatty acids and glycerol).

10. Risks of Saturated Fats, Trans Fats, and Excessive Cholesterol:

• Can increase LDL levels and contribute to cardiovascular diseases.

Proteins

1. Proteins - Functions:

   • Build and repair tissues, produce enzymes and hormones, support immune function, and act as a source of energy.

2. Building Blocks of Proteins:

   • Amino acids (20 total, 9 essential, 11 non-essential).

3. Essential vs Non-Essential Amino Acids:

   • Essential amino acids: Cannot be made by the body and must be obtained from food.

   • Non-essential amino acids: Can be synthesized by the body.

4. Denaturation:

   • The process where proteins lose their shape due to environmental factors (like heat or acidity), making them inactive.

5. Protein Digestion and Absorption:

   • Proteins are broken down into amino acids by enzymes like pepsin in the stomach, and further digestion occurs in the small intestine.

6. Protein Metabolism:

   • Protein synthesis: The process of building proteins from amino acids.

   • Deamination: The removal of the amino group from amino acids, which occurs in the liver, to produce energy or other compounds.

7. Positive vs. Negative Nitrogen Balance:

   • Positive nitrogen balance: When nitrogen intake exceeds excretion, such as during growth or pregnancy.

   • Negative nitrogen balance: When excretion exceeds intake, such as during illness or malnutrition.

8. High-Quality vs Low-Quality Proteins:

   • High-quality proteins: Contain all essential amino acids (e.g., animal proteins, soy).

   • Low-quality proteins: Lack one or more essential amino acids (e.g., most plant proteins except soy).

9. Kwashiorkor vs. Marasmus:

   • Kwashiorkor: Protein deficiency with adequate calorie intake, leading to edema and fatty liver.

   • Marasmus: Severe calorie and protein deficiency, leading to muscle wasting and stunted growth.

10. Fish Recommendations:

• The general recommendation is to eat 2-3 servings of fish per week.

Energy and Metabolism

1. Definitions:

   • Anabolism: Building up molecules (requires energy).

   • Catabolism: Breaking down molecules (releases energy).

   • ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate is the energy currency of the cell.

   • Aerobic: Energy production with oxygen.

   • Anaerobic: Energy production without oxygen.

2. Breakdown of Macronutrients:

   • Carbohydrates: Broken down into glucose, used for energy or stored as glycogen.

   • Proteins: Broken down into amino acids, used for building proteins or converted to glucose.

   • Fats: Broken down into fatty acids and glycerol, used for energy or stored in fat cells.

3. Cellular Respiration:

   • Takes place in the mitochondria.

   • Purpose: To convert glucose and fatty acids into ATP for energy.

4. Energy Balance:

   • Energy intake (food) vs. energy expenditure (activity). Positive energy balance leads to weight gain, while negative energy balance leads to weight loss.

5. Instruments for Measuring Energy in Food:

   • Bomb calorimeter measures the energy content of food by burning it.

6. Body Mass Index (BMI):

   • Ideal weight: BMI between 18.5–24.9.

   • Overweight: BMI between 25–29.9.

   • Underweight: BMI below 18.5.

7. Waist Circumference:

   • Men: Greater than 40 inches is associated with higher health risks.

   • Women: Greater than 35 inches is associated with higher health risks.

8. BMR, TEPA, TEF, and Adaptive Thermogenesis:

   • BMR (Basal Metabolic Rate): Energy used for basic bodily functions.

   • TEPA (Thermic Effect of Physical Activity): Energy used for physical activity.

   • TEF (Thermic Effect of Food): Energy used for digestion and absorption of food.

   • Adaptive thermogenesis: Energy used for temperature regulation.

Vitamins

1. What Are Vitamins?

   • Organic compounds that are essential for normal metabolic function.

   • They do not provide energy but help in energy metabolism.

2. Water-Soluble vs. Fat-Soluble Vitamins:

   • Water-soluble: Vitamin C, B-complex vitamins (absorbed directly into the bloodstream).

   • Fat-soluble: Vitamins A, D, E, K (absorbed with dietary fat and stored in the liver and fat tissues).

3. Functions:

   • Vitamin A: Vision, immune function.

   • Vitamin D: Bone health, calcium absorption.

   • Vitamin E: Antioxidant.

   • Vitamin K: Blood clotting.

   • Vitamin C: Collagen synthesis, antioxidant.

   • B Vitamins: Energy production, red blood cell formation.

4. Deficiencies:

   • Xerophthalmia: Vitamin A deficiency.

   • Scurvy: Vitamin C deficiency.

   • Beriberi: Thiamine (B1) deficiency.

   • Pellagra: Niacin (B3) deficiency.

   • Rickets: Vitamin D deficiency in children.

Water and Electrolytes

1. Role of Water:

   • Water makes up about 60% of the human body and is essential for all life processes. It helps in temperature regulation, digestion, absorption of nutrients, waste elimination, and maintaining cell structure.

2. Homeostasis of Water:

   • The kidneys regulate water balance in the body. They filter blood, removing excess water and waste through urine.

3. Organ Involved in Thirst Awareness:

   • The hypothalamus in the brain detects changes in the body’s water balance and triggers the sensation of thirst.

4. Signs of Dehydration:

   • Symptoms include dry mouth, fatigue, dark-colored urine, dizziness, and confusion.

5. Electrolytes - Sodium, Potassium, Chloride:

   • Sodium: Helps maintain fluid balance and nerve function.

   • Potassium: Vital for cell function, muscle contractions, and heart rhythm.

   • Chloride: Works with sodium to help maintain fluid balance.

6. Relationship Between Sodium and Potassium:

   • Sodium and potassium work together to maintain fluid balance and proper nerve and muscle function. An imbalance in either can lead to health issues such as high blood pressure.

Minerals – Major and Trace Minerals

1. Difference Between Major and Trace Minerals:

   • Major minerals: Needed in larger amounts (e.g., calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium).

   • Trace minerals: Needed in smaller amounts but are still essential for health (e.g., iron, zinc, iodine, selenium).

2. Role of Minerals:

   • Fluid balance: Sodium, potassium, and chloride help maintain water balance.

   • Structural functions: Calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium help build and maintain bones and teeth.

   • Antioxidants: Selenium and zinc help protect cells from damage.

3. Calcium Homeostasis:

   • Calcium levels are regulated by the parathyroid hormone and calcitonin to maintain bone health and other physiological processes. If calcium levels drop, the body will release calcium from bones to maintain proper function.

4. Where is Iron Stored in the Body?:

   • Iron is primarily stored in the liver, bone marrow, and spleen. It is stored in the form of ferritin.

5. Food Sources for Minerals:

   • Calcium: Dairy products, leafy greens, fortified plant milks.

   • Iron: Red meat, poultry, lentils, beans, fortified cereals.

   • Zinc: Meat, shellfish, legumes, seeds.

   • Magnesium: Nuts, seeds, whole grains, leafy vegetables.

Deficiency/Toxicity and Minerals Involved

• Iron Deficiency Anemia: Lack of iron, leading to fatigue, weakness, and pallor.

• Goiter: Iodine deficiency causing enlargement of the thyroid.

• Cretinism: Severe iodine deficiency during pregnancy, leading to developmental issues in infants.

• Fluorosis: Excess fluoride in the body, often due to overconsumption of fluoride-rich water or toothpaste, leading to discoloration and damage to teeth.

• Hyponatremia: Low sodium levels, which can cause headaches, nausea, and confusion.

• Hypernatremia: High sodium levels, which can lead to dehydration, high blood pressure, and other complications.

• Hypokalemia: Low potassium levels, causing muscle weakness, cramps, and irregular heart rhythms.

• Hyperkalemia: High potassium levels, which can lead to irregular heart rhythms and, in severe cases, cardiac arrest.

Food Safety

1. Temperature at Which Bacteria Grow Best:

   • Bacteria grow best between 40°F and 140°F (known as the "danger zone").

2. Requirements for Bacteria Growth in Foods:

   • Moisture, nutrients, and proper temperature are required for bacterial growth. Food should be kept either hot (above 140°F) or cold (below 40°F) to prevent bacterial growth.

3. Groups Most Vulnerable to Foodborne Illnesses:

   • Young children, pregnant women, elderly individuals, and those with weakened immune systems are at higher risk.

4. Food Security vs. Food Insecurity:

   • Food security means reliable access to sufficient, nutritious food.

   • Food insecurity refers to a lack of consistent access to enough food for an active, healthy life, often due to financial or logistical issues.

Lecture Exam 4 (Life Stages)

Conception and Development

1. Definitions:

   • Conception: The fertilization of an egg by a sperm cell.

   • Placenta: The organ that develops during pregnancy to provide nutrients and oxygen to the fetus.

   • Zygote: A fertilized egg.

   • Embryo: The developing organism from the time of fertilization to the end of the 8th week.

   • Fetus: The developing organism from the 9th week of pregnancy until birth.

   • Infant: A child under the age of 1.

   • Child: A person from age 1 to puberty.

   • Adolescent: A person going through puberty and the transition to adulthood.

   • Aging Adult: An older individual, generally over the age of 65.

2. Nutritional Changes During Lifespan:

   • Infancy: High growth rate, need for nutrients like protein, fats, and vitamins.

   • Childhood/Adolescence: Nutrient needs for growth and development, including increased energy needs during puberty.

   • Aging Adults: Decreased metabolism, loss of muscle mass, and increased risk of chronic diseases.

3. Common Do's and Don’ts in Exercise During Pregnancy:

   • Do: Exercise moderately (e.g., walking, swimming) to help with weight management, circulation, and stress relief.

   • Don't: Engage in high-risk activities (e.g., contact sports) or activities that could lead to injury.

4. Energy Needs During Pregnancy:

   • First trimester: No significant increase in caloric needs.

   • Second trimester: Increase by about 340 kcal/day.

   • Third trimester: Increase by about 450 kcal/day.

5. Role of WIC (Women, Infants, and Children):

   • WIC provides nutrition education, healthy food, and support to low-income pregnant women, new mothers, and children under 5 to ensure they have access to essential nutrients.

Nutrition During Lactation

6. Benefits of Breastfeeding:

   • Provides ideal nutrition, boosts the infant's immune system, promotes bonding, and reduces the risk of certain diseases for both mother and baby.

7. Hormones Involved in Lactation:

   • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production.

   • Oxytocin: Helps with the release of milk.

8. Breastfeeding for Women with HIV:

   • Women with HIV should not breastfeed, as the virus can be transmitted through breast milk.

9. Practices Incompatible with Pregnancy and Lactation:

   • Alcohol: Can harm fetal development and be passed through breast milk.

   • Illicit drugs: Harmful to both mother and child.

   • Tobacco: Increases the risk of complications in pregnancy and can harm the infant during lactation.

   • Environmental contaminants: Exposure to toxic substances can affect fetal development and infant health.

Infancy

10. Diet of an Infant for the First Six Months:

• Exclusive breastfeeding or formula feeding. No solid foods should be introduced until about 6 months.

11. First Milk (Pre-Milk):

• Colostrum: The first milk produced by the mother, rich in antibodies and nutrients that are essential for the infant's immune system.

12. Cow Milk for Newborns:

• Cow’s milk is not appropriate for a newborn due to its high protein and mineral content, which can stress the infant's immature kidneys. It can be introduced at around 12 months.

13. Complementary Foods:

• Solid foods introduced at about 6 months to complement breast milk or formula, such as pureed vegetables, fruits, and cereals.

Childhood and Adolescence

1. Measures of a Child’s Health:

   • Growth charts (height, weight, and head circumference) and BMI are commonly used to track a child's health and development.

2. Do All Children Need Supplements?:

   • No, not all children need supplements if they have a well-balanced diet. However, vitamin D, iron, and fluoride supplements may be recommended in certain cases.

3. Malnourishment and Hunger:

   • Malnourishment refers to an insufficient or poor-quality diet, which can lead to growth problems or deficiencies.

   • Hunger is the physical sensation of needing food.

4. Programs to Help with Hunger in the U.S.:

   • Programs like SNAP (Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program) and school lunch programs provide meals to low-income children.

5. Malnourished Children and Lead Poisoning:

   • Malnourished children are at increased risk of lead poisoning due to deficiencies in nutrients like calcium, iron, and zinc, which help the body detoxify lead.

6. Strategies for Avoiding Lead Poisoning:

   • Ensure children eat a balanced diet, avoid lead-contaminated environments, and ensure the home is lead-free.

7. Recommendations to Prevent Obesity:

   • Promote healthy eating patterns, regular physical activity, limit sugary drinks, and encourage portion control.

8. Energy Needs During Adolescence:

   • Adolescents have higher energy needs due to growth and development, and emotional factors can affect eating patterns.

9. Eating Disorders:

   • Anorexia nervosa: Extreme restriction of food intake.

   • Bulimia nervosa: Binge eating followed by purging (vomiting, laxatives).

   • Binge eating disorder: Frequent episodes of overeating without purging.

Seniors

1. Impact of Aging on the GI Tract, Bone Health, Muscle Health, Dental Health, Immunological Health, Cataracts, and Macular Degeneration:

   • GI Tract: Slower digestion and absorption, leading to potential issues like constipation.

   • Bone Health: Decreased calcium absorption and lower bone density, increasing the risk for osteoporosis.

   • Muscle Health: Sarcopenia, or muscle loss, often occurs with aging, leading to weakness and mobility issues.

   • Dental Health: Teeth become weaker, and gum disease can become more common.

   • Immunological Health: Aged immune systems are less efficient, making older adults more vulnerable to infections.

   • Cataracts and Macular Degeneration: Vision problems, including clouding of the lens and deterioration of the retina, are common with aging, leading to vision impairment.

2. Top Leading Causes of Death in the U.S.:

   • Heart disease, cancer, chronic lower respiratory diseases, stroke, and Alzheimer's disease are the leading causes of death in the U.S.

3. Causes of Diabetes:

   • Type 1 diabetes is typically autoimmune, where the body attacks its insulin-producing cells.

   • Type 2 diabetes is primarily caused by insulin resistance, where the body doesn't respond effectively to insulin. It’s often linked to lifestyle factors like poor diet and lack of exercise.

4. Cardiovascular Disease and the Relationship with Arteriosclerosis:

   • Arteriosclerosis is the hardening and narrowing of the arteries, which can lead to reduced blood flow and increased risk for heart attacks, strokes, and other cardiovascular diseases.

5. Hypertension – What Should You Limit?:

   • People with hypertension should limit sodium, saturated fats, and alcohol. It's recommended to follow a DASH (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension) diet, which emphasizes fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and low-fat dairy.

6. Type I Diabetes vs. Type II Diabetes:

   • Type I Diabetes: An autoimmune condition where the pancreas produces little to no insulin.

   • Type II Diabetes: A metabolic condition characterized by insulin resistance and eventual pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction, often related to obesity, lack of exercise, and poor diet.

7. Dietary Factors to Help Prevent Chronic Diseases:

   • Eating a balanced diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and healthy fats (e.g., from olive oil, nuts) can help prevent chronic diseases like heart disease, diabetes, and cancer.

   • Reducing processed foods, limiting red meat and saturated fats, and increasing physical activity are important lifestyle changes to prevent chronic diseases.

Terms Related to Aging and Chronic Diseases

• Osteoporosis vs. Osteopenia:

  • Osteopenia is the early stage of bone loss, where bones are weaker than normal but not yet at risk of fracture.

  • Osteoporosis is a more advanced stage of bone loss, characterized by fragile bones that are at high risk of breaking.

• Sarcopenia in Aging:

  • The loss of muscle mass and strength, often seen in older adults, leading to decreased mobility and an increased risk of falls.

• BMI Changes in Seniors:

  • As people age, BMI (Body Mass Index) may decrease due to muscle loss, but this is not always a sign of good health. It's important to monitor body composition (fat vs. muscle) rather than just weight.

• Metabolic Syndrome:

  • A group of risk factors (e.g., high blood pressure, high blood sugar, excess abdominal fat) that increase the risk for heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes.

Performance Nutrition

1. Definition of Fitness:

   • Fitness refers to the ability to perform physical activities and tasks efficiently. It includes cardiovascular health, strength, flexibility, and muscular endurance.

2. Benefits of Fitness:

   • Physical fitness improves heart health, muscle strength, flexibility, and mental well-being. It also lowers the risk of chronic diseases like diabetes, hypertension, and heart disease.

3. Examples of Cardiorespiratory Activity, Strength, and Flexibility:

   • Cardiorespiratory activity: Running, swimming, cycling.

   • Strength: Weightlifting, resistance training, push-ups.

   • Flexibility: Yoga, Pilates, stretching exercises.

4. Carbohydrate Loading – Bonking:

   • Carbohydrate loading is a strategy used by athletes to maximize glycogen stores in muscles before endurance events.

   • Bonking occurs when an athlete’s glycogen stores are depleted, leading to fatigue and poor performance.

5. Energy Sources – Aerobic, Anaerobic, Creatine Phosphate:

   • Aerobic: Energy produced with oxygen, used during prolonged, lower-intensity activities (e.g., running, swimming).

   • Anaerobic: Energy produced without oxygen, used during short bursts of high-intensity activity (e.g., weightlifting, sprinting).

   • Creatine Phosphate: A rapid energy source for very short, high-intensity activities.

6. Nutrition in Athletes – Deficiencies:

   • Athletes may have higher nutritional needs, particularly for carbohydrates, protein, and electrolytes. Common deficiencies include iron (especially in female athletes) and vitamin D.

7. Symptoms of Heat Cramps, Heat Stroke, Heat Exhaustion:

   • Heat cramps: Muscle cramps due to dehydration and electrolyte imbalances.

   • Heat exhaustion: Fatigue, nausea, dizziness, and profuse sweating.

   • Heat stroke: A life-threatening condition with high body temperature, confusion, and unconsciousness.

8. Best Drink to Meet Fluid Needs:

   • Water is typically the best drink to meet the fluid needs of most people and athletes. Sports drinks may be beneficial for athletes engaging in prolonged exercise (over 60 minutes) to replenish electrolytes.

9. Nutrient Dense vs. Energy Dense Diets:

   • Nutrient-dense diets are rich in essential vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients while being relatively low in calories (e.g., fruits, vegetables, lean proteins).

   • Energy-dense diets are high in calories but may lack important nutrients (e.g., fast food, sugary snacks).

10. Supplements:

• Many athletes use supplements (e.g., protein powder, creatine, multivitamins) to enhance performance or correct nutrient deficiencies. However, it's important to prioritize a balanced diet and consult with a healthcare professional before using supplements.