PSY 221A - Midterm Exam #2 Detailed Lecture Notes (Spring 2025)

Chapter 5: Emotion

Defining Emotion

• Emotions are brief, specific responses with:

  • Psychological components (thoughts, subjective experiences)

  • Physiological components (bodily reactions like increased heart rate)

• Designed to help achieve social goals.

• Different from moods: more fleeting (seconds to minutes).

• Functional purposes of emotions:

  • Fear prompts escape or avoidance of danger.

  • Anger leads to seeking justice or correcting wrongs.

  • Guilt motivates corrective actions, such as making amends.

  • Boredom drives seeking new activities.

Theories of Emotion

• James-Lange Theory: Emotions are a result of physiological reactions.

  • Challenges arise due to similar reactions across different emotions.

• Schachter & Singer’s Two-Factor Theory: Emotions arise from physiological arousal plus cognitive interpretation.

  • The Suspension Bridge Study illustrates this,

    • Heightened arousal leading to misinterpretation as attraction.

Universality and Cultural Differences

• Darwin's view: Emotions are biologically universal.

• Supporting evidence:

  • Paul Ekman's research on universal facial expressions.

  • Jessica Tracy's study on pride and shame postures in the blind.

• Affect Valuation Theory highlights:

  • U.S. cultures value excitement (individualism).

  • Eastern cultures value calmness (promoting harmony).

Chapter 6: Attitudes

Attitudes Defined

• An attitude is an evaluative reaction composed of:

  • Affective component: Emotional responses.

  • Behavioral component: Actions associated with the object.

  • Cognitive component: Beliefs about the object.

Explicit vs. Implicit Attitudes

• Explicit attitudes: Conscious evaluations reported directly.

• Implicit attitudes: Automatic evaluations, measured indirectly (e.g., IAT).

Attitude-Behavior Link

• LaPiere's 1934 study showed inconsistency between explicit attitudes and behaviors.

  • Wicker (1969) confirmed modest attitude-behavior correlation (~.30).

Conditions Enhancing Consistency

• Reduce external pressures to minimize bias.

• Match specificity of attitudes to behaviors.

• High cognitive accessibility of attitudes.

• Stronger attitudes from direct personal experiences.

Theory of Planned Behavior

• Behavioral intentions influenced by:

  • Attitude toward behavior.

  • Subjective norms (social expectations).

  • Perceived behavioral control (ease of performing behaviors).

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

• Inconsistencies produce psychological discomfort, motivating resolution through:

  • Changing attitudes or behaviors.

  • Adding supportive cognitions.

  • Minimizing the importance of discrepancies.

Research Paradigms

• Free-choice paradigm: Emphasizing positives of selected vs. negatives of rejected choices resolves post-decision dissonance.

• Induced compliance paradigm: Minimal payment influences attitude change significantly.

• Effort justification: Increased commitment after challenging initiations.

Chapter 7: Persuasion

Persuasion Overview

• Involves deliberate attempts to change attitudes to influence behaviors.

• Effective strategies rely on psychological processes.

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

• Two routes of persuasion:

  • Central route: Systematic evaluation leading to durable attitude changes.

  • Peripheral route: Superficial processing effective in low-motivation situations.

Yale Approach to Persuasion

• Key elements:

  • Speaker: Attractiveness, credibility, and confidence matter.

    • The sleeper effect demonstrates delayed persuasion from initially discredited sources.

  • Message: Quality and coherence enhance persuasiveness.

    • Vivid storytelling often outperforms statistical information.

    • Moderate fear appeals with clear solutions are effective.

  • Audience: Younger audiences are more vulnerable; positive mood enhances persuasiveness.

Strategies to Resist Persuasion

• Forewarning increases skepticism.

• Informational preparedness allows for critical analysis.

• Public commitments solidify stances and increase accountability.

Influence Tactics (Cialdini’s Principles)

• Reciprocity: Obligation to return favors.

• Commitment and Consistency: Desire for behavioral consistency.

• Social Proof: Conformity to others’ behaviors.

• Liking: Persuasion from likable individuals.

• Authority: Trust in experts.

• Scarcity: Increased desire for rare items.