Human Development 🧮

Definition

Human development is the science of understanding how and why people of all ages and circumstances change and remain the same over time.

Characteristics of Development

• Multidirectional: Human characteristics change in all directions, not just in one direction.

• Multicontextual: Development occurs within different contexts, such as historical context, socioeconomic status, and culture.

• Multicultural: Development is influenced by multiple cultures and cultural backgrounds.

• Plastic: Development is moldable and durable, meaning it can be shaped and changed over time.

Understanding Development

When thinking about yourself at 6 years old, are you exactly the same person now? You've likely changed physically and psychologically, but some core aspects of your personality remain the same.

Theories of Development

Historical Context

• Cohort: A group of individuals born within a few years of each other, sharing similar historical experiences.

• Importance of historical context: understanding how growing up in different eras and locations shapes our experiences and development.

Socioeconomic Status (SES)

SES affects development in various areas, including:

• Food costs and access to healthcare

• Education and education goals

• Neighborhood and upbringing

Multiculturalism

• Culture: A system of shared beliefs, norms, and behaviors that guide social behavior.

• Social constructions: Based on shared perceptions, not objective reality.

• Difference equals deficit error: Assuming that one's own culture is superior to others, leading to biases and misunderstandings.

Vygotsky's Theory

• Interaction between culture and education: we learn cultural knowledge and skills through observation and interaction with older members of our culture.

Ethnicity and Race

• Ethnicity: A social construction affected by social context, more than biology.

• Race: A social construction that can lead to racism, affecting development.

Note: The professor's mention of "plastic" development being "moldable and durable" is an analogy to highlight the concept, but it is not a direct reference to the environmental impact of plastic waste.## Developmental Research: Nature vs. Nurture 💡

Nature and Nurture Defined

Nature vs. Nurture is a debated topic in developmental research, focusing on the influence of biology and genetics (nature) versus environmental factors (nurture) on human development.

Nature refers to the biological and genetic aspects of who we are, including:

• Physical traits (e.g., eye color, height)

• Psychological traits (e.g., personality, temperament)

Nurture refers to the environmental influences that shape us, including:

• Family and upbringing

• School and community

• Social and cultural factors

Epigenetics: The Bridge Between Nature and Nurture 🔍

Epigenetics is the study of how environmental factors affect genetic expression. This field helps us understand how our genetic makeup interacts with our environment, influencing our development and behavior.

Genetic Influences: Differential Susceptibility 🧬

Differential Susceptibility refers to the varying degrees of environmental influence on individuals based on their genetic makeup. This concept is crucial in understanding how genetic predispositions affect our health and behavior.

Critical and Sensitive Periods 🕰

Critical Periods are specific times when certain developmental milestones must occur, or they will not happen at all. Examples include prenatal development and language acquisition.

Sensitive Periods are times when development is more responsive to environmental influences, but it's not a one-time opportunity.

Language Development is a critical aspect of human development, especially during the early years. Our brain is primed to learn language from 0 to 3 years old, setting up a speech and language center for the primary language we hear. If we're fortunate enough to be growing up in a bilingual family, our brain will develop two language centers, one for each language.

Important to Note:

• After about age 7, our ability to pick up a new language and speak it fluently drops off significantly.

• It's not impossible to learn a new language later in life, but it will be a struggle.

Why is it harder to learn a new language later in life?

• Our brain has to translate what we hear in the new language into our primary language, think about the response, and then translate it back into the new language.

• This process is much more complicated than thinking and responding in our primary language.

Ecological Systems Approach to Development 🌿

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Approach states that every person develops within multiple contexts, and there are many factors affecting our development. He proposed three nested levels that surround us as we develop:

Important to Note:

• The interaction between these systems affects our development differently depending on our age and stage of development.

• The age at which a significant event occurs affects how it impacts our development.

Developmental Theories 🧠

Developmental Theories aim to explain why most people develop in a certain way, providing a framework for understanding how people change as they get older.

Key Definition:

Psychoanalytic Theory by Freud 🤯

Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory proposes that we have irrational, unconscious drives and motives that guide our behavior. These unconscious motives develop in childhood and can influence our behavior later in life.

Freud's Stage Theory:

Important to Note:

• Freud believed that significant experiences in childhood shape our development and can influence our behavior later in life.

• He thought that all important development occurred before the age of 12.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory 📈

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory built upon Freud's ideas, but disagreed with some aspects. He emphasized the importance of childhood experiences and added adult stages to his theory.

Erikson's 8 Developmental Stages:

Important to Note:

• Erikson believed that we continue to develop and change throughout our lives, not just in childhood.

• Each stage has a developmental crisis that we must overcome to move forward.## Developmental Psychology 📚

Trust Issues

Adults who have unresolved trust issues may struggle to form healthy relationships. This can stem from a lack of trust established in early childhood, particularly if the child was neglected or abused. As a result, they may have difficulty trusting others and forming successful relationships.

Behavioral Theories 🧠

In contrast to Freud's philosophically-based theories, behavioral theorists focused on scientific methods and measurable outcomes.

Classical Conditioning

• Example: Pavlov's Dogs Experiment

  • Ivan Pavlov, a Russian biologist, discovered that dogs would salivate when they associated the sound of a bell with food.

  • He rang a bell before presenting the dogs with food, and eventually, the dogs would salivate upon hearing the bell alone.

Operant Conditioning

• Example: Rewarding or Punishing Behavior

  • If a behavior is followed by a reward, it is more likely to be repeated.

  • If a behavior is followed by punishment, it is less likely to be repeated.

Social Learning

• Example: Observing and Imitating Others

  • Younger siblings often observe and imitate their older siblings' behavior.

  • We learn by watching others and experiencing the consequences of their actions.

Experiments in Behaviorism 💡

John Watson's Experiment

John Watson's experiment aimed to teach a 9-month-old baby, Noah Albert, to associate certain stimuli with fear. He used classical conditioning techniques, such as pairing a neutral stimulus (e.g., a rat) with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., a loud noise) to elicit a fear response. Watson's experiment raised ethical concerns, as he intentionally induced fear in the child and did not attempt to reverse the conditioning. This experiment led to significant changes in research ethics and the establishment of institutional review boards.

Note: Watson's experiment would not be allowed today due to its ethical concerns.## Conditioning and Learning Theories 📚

Operant Conditioning

• Developed by B.F. Skinner

• Focuses on the role of reinforcement and punishment in learning

• Skinner conducted experiments with rats and pigeons to demonstrate the power of operant conditioning

Social Learning Theory

• Developed by Albert Bandura

• Proposes that people learn new behaviors by observing and imitating others

• Famous experiment: the Bobo doll study

The Bobo Doll Study

• Researchers had children watch adults either play nicely or aggressively with a Bobo doll

• The children were then left alone with the doll and observed to see how they would interact with it

• Results: children who saw adults behave aggressively towards the doll were more likely to imitate that behavior

Cognitive Theory

• Developed by Piaget

• Focuses on how our thinking and brain development changes over time

• Piaget proposed that cognitive development occurs in stages, with each stage building on the previous one

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Chronosystem

• Part of Urie Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory

• Refers to the effect of time and age on human development