day 2 review

### AP Psychology Study Guide: Day 2 MC Review

Covers Perception, Memory, Intelligence, and Social Psychology

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### 1. Perception (2.1)

Key Concepts:

- Selective Attention: Focusing on one stimulus (e.g., ignoring café noise while reading).

- Perceptual Set: Prior experiences shape interpretation (e.g., seeing clouds as faces).

- Top-Down Processing: Using background knowledge to guide perception (e.g., recognizing a friend in a crowd).

- Gestalt Principles:

- Closure: Fill in gaps (e.g., perceiving a circle from dashes).

- Proximity: Group nearby objects (e.g., trees lining a street).

- Depth Cues:

- Binocular Disparity: Slight image difference between eyes for 3D vision.

- Monocular Cues: Linear perspective (parallel lines converge), texture gradient.

Mnemonic: "See Top Dogs Climb Pretty Bridges" → Selective attention, Top-down, Depth cues, Closure, Proximity, Binocular disparity.

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### 2. Thinking & Problem-Solving (2.2)

Key Terms:

- Metacognition: Thinking about your own thinking (e.g., reflecting on study strategies).

- Algorithm: Step-by-step method (e.g., math formulas).

- Heuristics: Mental shortcuts:

- Availability: Judging likelihood based on memory (e.g., fearing planes after a crash).

- Representativeness: Stereotyping (e.g., assuming a librarian is introverted).

- Biases:

- Functional Fixedness: Can’t see new uses for objects (e.g., screwdriver as a weight).

- Sunk-Cost Fallacy: Continuing a failing project due to past investment.

Example: Gambler’s Fallacy → Believing "I’m due for a win" after losses.

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### 3. Memory (2.3–2.7)

#### Types of Memory:

- Explicit (Declarative): Conscious recall.

- Episodic: Personal experiences (e.g., your last birthday).

- Semantic: Facts (e.g., capital of France).

- Implicit (Non-declarative): Unconscious (e.g., riding a bike).

- Prospective: Remembering future actions (e.g., attending a meeting).

#### Encoding & Retrieval:

- Distributed Practice: Spacing study sessions > cramming.

- Serial Position Effect: Better recall of first (*primacy*) and last (*recency*) items in a list.

- Context-Dependent Memory: Recall improves in same environment (e.g., studying in the test room).

#### Forgetting:

- Interference:

- Proactive: Old info disrupts new (e.g., old password interferes with new one).

- Retroactive: New info disrupts old (e.g., learning Spanish interferes with French).

- Source Amnesia: Forgetting the origin of a memory (e.g., attributing a quote to the wrong person).

Mnemonic: "DEEP" → Distributed practice, Encoding specificity, Elaboration, Primacy/recency.

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### 4. Intelligence (2.8)

- General Intelligence (g): Overall cognitive ability.

- Fluid vs. Crystallized:

- Fluid: Declines with age (problem-solving, puzzles).

- Crystallized: Grows with age (vocabulary, facts).

- Stereotype Threat: Underperformance due to fear of confirming stereotypes (e.g., women in math).

Example: Achievement Test (AP Exam) vs. Aptitude Test (SAT).

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### 5. Social Psychology (4.1–4.5)

#### Attribution & Attitudes:

- Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasizing personality over situation (e.g., "They’re late because they’re lazy").

- Cognitive Dissonance: Tension from conflicting beliefs/actions (e.g., smoking despite knowing it’s harmful).

#### Group Dynamics:

- Groupthink: Suppressing dissent to maintain harmony (e.g., flawed jury decisions).

- Diffusion of Responsibility: Bystander effect (e.g., not helping in a crowd).

- Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness in groups (e.g., riots).

Mnemonic: "DISC" → Diffusion, In-group bias, Social loafing, Conformity.

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### 6. Quick Review: Scenarios

1. "Left-handed people are more creative" despite evidence → Belief Perseverance.

2. Slacking in a group project → Social Loafing.

3. Extreme opinions after a speech → Group Polarization.

4. Unconscious gender-profession associations → Implicit Bias.

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### Study Tips:

1. Flashcards: Focus on bolded terms and examples.

2. Practice Questions: Apply terms to scenarios (e.g., "Which bias explains X?").

3. Diagrams: Sketch the forgetting curve or Gestalt principles.

Need clarification? Ask about any term or concept! 😊

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Here's the completed Day 2 MC Guided Review Sheet with all blanks filled using the provided word bank:

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### 2.1 Perception

1. While reading a book in a noisy café, Maria remains focused on her novel, effectively using selective attention to ignore the background chatter.

2. Due to his perceptual set, John interprets ambiguous images based on his prior experiences and expectations.

3. Recognizing a familiar face in a crowd demonstrates top-down processing, where perception is guided by higher-level cognitive processes.

4. When looking at a series of unconnected dots arranged in a circle, people often perceive a complete circle due to the Gestalt principle of closure.

5. Observing a row of evenly spaced trees lining a street, one perceives them as a group because of the Gestalt principle of proximity.

6. The slight difference in images between our two eyes, known as binocular disparity, helps us perceive depth.

7. Artists use monocular cues, such as linear perspective and texture gradient, to create the illusion of depth on a flat canvas.

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### 2.2 Thinking and Problem-Solving

8. Reflecting on one's own thought processes to improve learning strategies is an example of metacognition.

9. Following a step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem exemplifies an algorithm.

10. Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory illustrates the availability heuristic.

11. Persisting in using a familiar problem-solving approach, even when it's ineffective, demonstrates a mental set.

12. Continuing to invest in a failing project because of the resources already committed reflects the sunk-cost fallacy.

13. Believing that a string of losses in gambling increases the chance of a win shows the gambler’s fallacy.

14. Failing to see a screwdriver as a potential weight for a pendulum in a problem-solving task is an example of functional fixedness.

15. Generating multiple possible solutions to a problem involves divergent thinking, while narrowing down to the best solution involves convergent thinking.

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### 2.3 Introduction to Memory

16. Memories of personal experiences are categorized as episodic memory, whereas general world knowledge is stored as semantic memory.

17. Remembering to attend a meeting next week requires prospective memory, while recalling past events involves retrospective memory.

18. The strengthening of synaptic connections through repeated activation is known as long-term potentiation (LTP).

19. The component of working memory responsible for integrating information and coordinating cognitive processes is the central executive.

20. The phonological loop processes verbal and auditory information in working memory.

21. The depth at which information is processed, affecting how well it is remembered, is referred to as the levels of processing.

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### 2.4 Encoding Memories

22. Studying for several short sessions over multiple days exemplifies distributed practice, which is generally more effective than massed practice.

23. The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items is known as the serial position effect.

24. Organizing information into manageable units, such as breaking down a phone number into segments, is a mnemonic device called chunking.

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### 2.5 Storing Memories

25. The inability to form new memories after a brain injury is characteristic of anterograde amnesia, whereas difficulty recalling memories from before the injury indicates retrograde amnesia.

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### 2.6 Retrieving Memories

26. Retrieving information without external cues, as in answering an essay question, involves recall, while identifying the correct answer from options, as in multiple-choice questions, involves recognition.

27. Improved recall of specific information when the context present at encoding and retrieval is the same is known as context-dependent memory.

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### 2.7 Forgetting and Other Memory Challenges

28. The phenomenon where memory retention declines over time, as demonstrated by Ebbinghaus, is called the forgetting curve.

29. When older information hinders the recall of newer information, it is referred to as proactive interference; conversely, when new information disrupts the recall of older information, it is called retroactive interference.

30. Attributing a memory to the wrong source, such as thinking you heard something from one person when it was actually from another, is an example of source amnesia.

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### 2.8 Intelligence and Achievement

31. The theory that intelligence is a single general ability is known as the general intelligence (g) theory, while the perspective that intelligence consists of multiple distinct abilities is referred to as the multiple intelligences theory.

32. The ability to use learned knowledge and experience is termed crystallized intelligence, which tends to remain stable or increase with age, whereas the capacity to reason and solve novel problems, known as fluid intelligence, often declines with age.

33. A test designed to measure what a person has learned is called an achievement test, while a test intended to predict a person's future performance is an aptitude test.

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### 4.1 Attribution Theory and Person Perception

34. Explaining someone's behavior by attributing it to their personality traits reflects a dispositional attribution, whereas attributing it to external circumstances reflects a situational attribution.

35. The tendency to attribute one's own actions to external factors while attributing others' actions to internal factors is known as the actor-observer bias.

36. The phenomenon where repeated exposure to a stimulus increases one's preference for it is called the mere exposure effect.

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### 4.2 Attitude Formation and Attitude Change

37. A generalized belief about a group of people is a stereotype, while an unjustifiable negative attitude toward a group is prejudice, and negative behavior toward a group is discrimination.

38. The discomfort experienced when holding two conflicting cognitions is referred to as cognitive dissonance.

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### 4.3–4.5 Scenarios

39. Despite evidence to the contrary, Maria continues to believe that left-handed people are more creative than right-handed people. This is an example of belief perseverance.

40. When working on a group project, John puts in less effort than he would if he were working alone, assuming others will pick up the slack. This behavior illustrates social loafing.

41. After hearing a persuasive speech that aligns with his pre-existing beliefs, Tom's opinions become even more extreme. This phenomenon is known as group polarization.

42. Sarah feels uncomfortable when she smokes because she knows it's unhealthy, yet she continues to do so. This discomfort is due to cognitive dissonance.

43. In a jury deliberation, members suppress dissenting opinions to maintain harmony, leading to a poor decision. This is an example of groupthink.

44. Emily believes that all members of a rival sports team are aggressive, failing to recognize individual differences among them. This exemplifies out-group homogeneity bias.

45. During a crisis, individuals in a crowd are less likely to help a person in need, each assuming someone else will intervene. This is known as diffusion of responsibility.

46. Liam donates to charity without expecting anything in return, demonstrating altruism.

47. To persuade an audience uninterested in detailed arguments, a speaker uses attractive visuals and catchy slogans, utilizing the peripheral route to persuasion.

48. Jane unconsciously associates certain professions with specific genders, reflecting her implicit bias.

49. In a culture that emphasizes personal goals over group goals, individualism is the dominant value system.

50. Mark conforms to his friends' behavior to be liked and accepted, which is an example of normative social influence.

51. Believing that others share his opinion on a controversial issue, even when they do not, illustrates the false consensus effect.

52. Assigning different tasks to group members based on their strengths, the team works efficiently, avoiding social loafing.

53. Despite new information disproving her initial belief, Anna continues to hold onto it, demonstrating belief perseverance.

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### Key Takeaways

- Perception: Top-down processing and Gestalt principles organize sensory input.

- Memory: Distributed practice and chunking enhance retention.

- Social Psychology: Cognitive dissonance and group dynamics shape behavior.

Here's a structured study guide based on your Day 2 Multiple Choice Terms List, organized by topic for clarity and ease of review:

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### Psychological Perspectives

1. Biopsychosocial: Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors.

2. Behavioral: Focuses on observable behaviors (Pavlov, Skinner).

3. Cognitive: Studies mental processes like memory and problem-solving.

4. Evolutionary: Explains traits as adaptive (Darwinian principles).

5. Psychodynamic: Unconscious drives and childhood experiences (Freud).

6. Humanistic: Emphasizes growth potential (Maslow, Rogers).

7. Biological: Brain structures, neurotransmitters.

8. Behavior-Genetics: Nature vs. nurture influences.

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### Research Methods

- Correlation vs. Experiment: Correlation shows relationships; experiments establish causation via IV manipulation.

- IV (Independent Variable): Manipulated factor.

- DV (Dependent Variable): Measured outcome.

- Operational Definitions: Clear procedures for measuring variables.

- Random Assignment: Ensures equal group distribution.

- Validity:

- Predictive: Forecasts future outcomes.

- Construct: Measures intended trait.

- Reliability:

- Interrater: Consistency between observers.

- Test-Retest: Consistency over time.

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### Statistics

- Descriptive:

- Mean/Median/Mode: Central tendency measures.

- SD/Variance/Range: Dispersion metrics.

- Inferential:

- Statistical Significance (\(p < 0.05\)): Results not due to chance.

- Effect Size: Magnitude of differences.

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### Perception (2.1)

- Selective Attention: Focusing on one stimulus (e.g., cocktail party effect).

- Gestalt Principles:

- Closure: Fill in gaps (e.g., seeing a circle from dashes).

- Proximity: Group nearby objects.

- Monocular Cues: Depth perception (e.g., linear perspective).

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### Thinking & Problem-Solving (2.2)

- Algorithm: Step-by-step solution (guaranteed).

- Heuristics: Mental shortcuts (e.g., availability heuristic).

- Functional Fixedness: Inability to see new uses for objects.

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### Memory (2.3–2.7)

- Explicit (Declarative): Conscious recall (episodic/semantic).

- Implicit (Non-declarative): Unconscious (e.g., procedural memory).

- Encoding:

- Distributed Practice: Better than massed (cramming).

- Serial Position Effect: Recency/primacy.

- Forgetting Curve: Ebbinghaus’s exponential decay.

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### Intelligence (2.8)

- Fluid vs. Crystallized:

- Fluid: Declines with age (problem-solving).

- Crystallized: Grows (knowledge-based).

- Stereotype Threat: Underperformance due to stereotypes.

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### Social Psychology (4.1–4.3)

- Attribution Theory:

- Fundamental Error: Overemphasizing dispositional factors.

- Cognitive Dissonance: Tension from conflicting beliefs/actions.

- Conformity:

- Normative: Fit in.

- Informational: Assume others know better.

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### Personality & Motivation (4.4–4.5)

- Big Five (OCEAN): Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

- Yerkes-Dodson Law: Optimal arousal for performance.

- Maslow’s Hierarchy: Self-actualization as peak.

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### Quick Mnemonics

- Obedience (Milgram): "Shock"ing authority effects.

- Memory Errors: Source Amnesia (recall details but not origin).

Tip: Use flashcards for terms like interposition (depth cue) and deindividuation (lost in group actions).