JOUR 1002 Mid-Term Flashcards

Journalism Notes

Day 1: January 23, 2025

What is Journalism?

• Definition: Uncovering the truth through facts and research.

• Partisan Definition: "Wherever the people are well-informed, they can be trusted with their own government." – Thomas Jefferson

• Journalism’s Role in Society:

  • To show the truth hidden by the lies of people in power.

  • To inform the public about what is happening in the world, both good and bad.

The Elements of Journalism

1. First obligation is to tell the truth.

2. First loyalty is to citizens.

3. Journalism is a discipline of verification.

4. Journalists must maintain independence.

5. Being impartial and neutral is not a core principle of journalism.

   • Objectivity in methods, not necessarily in viewpoint.

   • Journalistic independence ≠ neutrality.

   • Hard to separate facts from bias in today's siloed media landscape.

Who is a Journalist?

• The definition has become more diffused.

• Today’s history is written the moment it happens.

• Journalists have an obligation to report accurately.

• Citizens have an obligation to be well-informed.

Key Historical & Modern Issues in Journalism

Press & Democracy

• The Press as a Check on Power

• Democracy Dies in Darkness – The Washington Post

• Muckraking Period: Early investigative journalism exposing corruption.

• Dark Money: Billionaires influencing government through undisclosed funding.

Press Freedom & Government Influence

• First Amendment:

  • Wasn’t originally part of the Constitution.

  • Protects freedom of speech and the press.

• Near v. Minnesota (1931):

  • Supreme Court ruled 5-4 against prior restraint of the press.

The Red Scare & Media Control

• Fear of communism leading to press suppression.

• Father Coughlin:

  • Radio show reached ⅓ of America.

  • Became a demagogue spreading extremist views.

• Franklin D. Roosevelt & Fireside Chats:

  • Used radio to communicate directly with the public.

Modern Press & Political Conflicts

• Donald Trump & the Media:

  • Demonized and delegitimized the press.

  • Called reporters “Enemies of the People.”

  • Trump Organization might weaponize regulations to punish media companies.

  • FBI’s Kash Patel stated Trump’s organization would "come after" media figures.

• Jim Acosta Moved to Midnight:

  • CNN's decision to appease Trump.

• Trump’s Halt on TikTok Ban for 75 Days:

  • Strategic delay to control media narrative.

• Encrypted Data & Media Lawsuits:

  • Journalists preparing for lawsuits.

  • Encryption helps protect sources from government subpoenas.

Historical Parallels & Media Influence

• New York Post Founder: Alexander Hamilton.

• Early Misinformation:

  • The very first newspaper was filled with disinformation.

• First Anti-Vax Campaign:

  • Occurred in colonial times.

• Madison Square Garden Nazi Rally:

  • Slogan was "Make America Great Again."

Challenges in Journalism Today

News Deserts

• Definition: Areas without local newspapers.

• 1 in 70 Americans live in a news desert.

• The Post and Courier: Example of a 4th-generation family-owned newspaper working to restore quality journalism.

• Need for Quality Content:

  • Good stories people can't find anywhere else.

Technology & Journalism

• How Technology Changed Journalism:

  1. More accessible but also amplifies untrained voices.

  2. Focus on views over truth.

• Three Critical Factors in Journalism:

  1. Technology

  2. Press Freedom

  3. Public Service

• Edward R. Murrow: Influential journalist known for fearless reporting.

• Conducting Journalism in Small Towns Requires Fearlessness

Where Do People Get Their News?

• Sources:

  • Parents, friends, and random online sources.

• Trust Issues:

  • Uncertain about which sources to trust.

Chapter 1 Notes: The News Business in America

The Nature of News Media

• News business in America has been a private enterprise.

• Cultural enterprise lodged inside a business enterprise.

• Tension exists between the content of the news and the forms of business.

• The news media allows society to see itself.

• The media are not neutral instruments; they consist of people with both economic and non-economic motives.

• Without information about prices, a continental market cannot exist.

• The news media serve as a watchdog, exposing corruption and holding wrongdoers accountable.

Early Journalism in America

• Early 18th-century newspaper business was still new.

• Early settlers brought cultural inheritance from Europe.

• Newspapers were already flourishing in London by the late seventeenth century.

• Sources of information included weekly sermons, discussions with neighbors, official proclamations, and letters from distant places.

The First Newspaper in America

• September 25, 1690: Publick Occurrences Both Foreign and Domestic was published in Boston by Benjamin Harris.

• Failed to get permission from royal authorities and was shut down.

• English law (since 1538) required all printed matter to be issued a license or be authorized by the Crown.

• Harris’ publication was banned due to controversial content about the King of France and the Iroquois Indians.

• Demonstrates the royal governor of Massachusetts’ power to censor the press.

Expansion of Colonial News Media

• By the end of the seventeenth century, English colonists strengthened ties among themselves.

• Postal delivery enabled residents to exchange personal and political news.

• First successful American newspaper: The Boston News-Letter (1704), published by John Campbell, the postmaster.

• Campbell wrote for a small elite audience and avoided controversial topics.

• By 1719, a rival paper, The Boston Gazette, emerged.

• 1721: The New England Courant, published by James Franklin, became Boston’s third newspaper.

• Most colonial newspapers were produced by non-journalists.

The Role of Printers in Journalism

• Printing was among the earliest trades established in the English colonies.

• The first printing press in Cambridge served Harvard College and the Protestant population.

• Printers published religious materials such as psalm books, sermons, and hymnals.

• Printing was often episodic, waiting for orders.

• The demand for sermons and almanacs provided steady work for printers.

• Newspapers were a business proposition, published weekly with perishable content.

• First daily newspaper in the U.S. appeared in 1783.

• Printers relied on subscriptions and did not actively seek out news; information was brought to them.

The Printing Process

• Printers performed multiple roles: publisher, editor, compositor, pressman, writer, reporter, ad salesman, and circulation manager.

• Printing was labor-intensive, requiring meticulous typesetting.

• The process included:

  1. Selecting letters one by one in a composing stick.

  2. Transferring lines to a galley tray.

  3. Locking letters into a rectangular chase.

  4. Reading text upside-down and backward to check for accuracy.

  5. Applying ink using an ink beater (prepared with lampblack, tree sap, linseed oil, and soaked in urine for consistency).

  6. Pressing damp linen rag paper onto the inked chase.

  7. Producing over one hundred sheets on a good day.

• Most newspapers reprinted old news from Europe.

• Public prints carried information for merchants, ship captains, and slave traders.

• Public executions were commonly reported.

Benjamin Franklin and American Journalism

• Benjamin Franklin was a foundational figure in American journalism.

• Advocated for journalists to serve the public by presenting controversial material fairly.

• Articulated the belief that “when truth and error have fair play, truth will always win” (Benjamin Franklin).

• Born in 1706 in Boston, the fifteenth child of his family.

• Worked in his family’s chandlery business but disliked it.

• Apprenticed to his older brother James in a print shop at age 12.

• Developed self-education through books and wrote under the pseudonym Silence Dogood.

• In 1729, Franklin bought The Pennsylvania Gazette and made it a successful newspaper.

• Advocated that printers should not take sides but instead provide a forum for debate.

• Defended the open press and neutral journalism.

The Zenger Trial and Press Freedom

• 1730s: The American colonies were still under British rule.

• English and colonial printers could be charged with seditious libel if they criticized the government.

• John Peter Zenger, publisher of The New York Journal, was arrested for criticizing Governor William Cosby.

• His wife, Anna Zenger, took over operations during his nine-month imprisonment.

• Zenger’s lawyer, Andrew Hamilton, argued that truth should be a defense against libel.

• Jury found Zenger not guilty, marking a political victory for press freedom.

• This case influenced the debate on press freedom in the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights.

Journalism and the Information Age

• Journalism is about change, not just the past.

• Knowledge is power, and written communication followed the rise of cities, trade, and commerce.

• Early communication developments:

  • Sumerians developed writing (cuneiform on clay tablets, 3000 BC).

  • Egyptians created phonetic writing.

  • Phoenicians invented the alphabet.

  • Chinese developed paper.

• The Tower of Babel symbolizes the diversification of human language.

• Early Mesopotamian civilization (Sumerians in present-day Iraq) made advancements in writing, mathematics, and science.

Conclusion

• The evolution of journalism reflects societal changes and technological advancements.

• The role of journalists has historically involved tension between business and editorial content.

• The press has played a critical role in democracy, acting as a watchdog against corruption and fostering public debate.

• The history of journalism underscores the ongoing struggle for press freedom and neutrality in news media.

The Patriot Press and the American Revolution

The Role of the Patriot Press

• The Patriot Press played a crucial role in shaping American identity and inflaming anti-British sentiment.

• Newspapers and pamphlets helped define what it meant to be an American and fueled revolutionary ideas.

• It was a propaganda battle over identity, portraying Britain as oppressive.

Key Philosophical Influences

John Locke

• Believed man is born a blank slate with the power of self-determination.

• Advocated that government is a social contract, not a divine right.

• If the government fails to uphold natural rights, people have the right to overthrow it.

• Educated at Oxford, he opposed absolute monarchy and the divine right of kings.

• Argued people are born with natural, God-given rights to life, liberty, and property.

Tensions Between Britain and the Colonies

French and Indian War (1754-1763)

• A seven-year conflict between British and French colonies, involving Native American tribes.

• Treaty of Paris (1763) gave Britain vast territories, including Canada.

• War doubled British debt, leading to new taxation policies on the colonies.

The Stamp Act (1765-1766)

• Taxed various items, requiring a paid stamp for validation.

• Unpopular—meant to fund colonial security but seen as unfair taxation.

• Newspapers played a major role in resistance; none published on stamped paper.

• George Washington: Parliament has no right to put their hands in our pockets without our consent.

• Patrick Henry introduced a resolution against it.

• Led to riots and was repealed in 1766.

• Radicalized printers, leading to stronger advocacy for independence.

Townshend Acts and Growing Resistance

• Taxed goods like tea, causing widespread boycotts.

• John Dickinson: It is the colonies' right to impose taxes, not Britain’s.

• "No free people ever existed who didn’t have the purse string in their hand."

Key Figures in the Press and Revolution

Samuel Adams

• Cousin of John Adams, radical leader in Boston.

• Took over the Boston Gazette, making it the most radical newspaper.

• Failed businessman, bitter towards Britain for shutting down his land bank.

• Became a successful politician, leading revolutionary efforts.

• Urged Continental Congress to sign the Declaration of Independence.

• "It does not take a majority to prevail."

Ben Franklin

• Early advocate for colonial unity.

• His drawing in the newspaper was one of the biggest propaganda pieces of the revolution.

Thomas Paine and Common Sense

• Came from the working class, son of a corset maker.

• Wrote clear, forceful, direct prose, avoiding flowery language.

• First American writer to call for a clean break from Britain.

• Common Sense sold nearly as much as the Bible.

• George Washington: "A work of powerful change."

• Later became outspoken against religion, leading to his downfall.

• Died in 1809 with only six people at his funeral.

Major Events and Revolutionary Sentiment

Boston Massacre (March 5, 1770)

• Started when a young colonist threw snowballs at British soldiers.

• Became an anti-British propaganda piece, exaggerating British cruelty.

• Paul Revere created an inflamed engraving of the event.

• John Adams defended the British soldiers, while Samuel Adams called the acquittal a miscarriage of justice.

Boston Tea Party (December 16, 1773)

• Colonists boycotted British East India Company tea.

• 100 Bostonians, disguised as Native Americans, dumped $3.5 million worth of tea into the Boston Harbor.

The Journal of Occurrences and the Sons of Liberty

• Published news of the British occupation in Boston.

• Often exaggerated or false, fueling anti-British propaganda.

• Helped unify the colonies by rallying support around Boston.

The Role of the Press in the War

• Press coverage was highly partisan, influencing public opinion.

• Many Tories (British loyalists) were attacked in Boston, New York, and New Hampshire.

• Isaiah Thomas, a leading colonial printer, was on the British execution list.

• James Rivington, a notorious Tory sympathizer, was later revealed to be a secret spy.

The Transformation (1760-1810)

• The colonies shifted from a monarchy to one of the most liberal, democratic, and commercially-minded societies in the world.

Early American Press & The First Amendment

Origins & Establishment of Press Freedom

• First Amendment

  • Established by U.S. Congress and the states

  • Part of the Bill of Rights (designed to limit government power)

  • Protects five freedoms:

    • Press, Petition, Assembly, Speech, Religion

  • Only 7% of people surveyed knew freedom of the press is in the First Amendment

  • ⅓ of 100,000 high school students believed journalism should report without government approval

  • Madison's Proposals

    • Initially unsure, later supported a press freedom clause

    • Clause was debated and altered before being adopted

  • Congress adopted it in 1789, states ratified it by 1791

  • Courts expanded the First Amendment's application:

    • Prior restraint prohibited

    • Gitlow v. New York (1925) extended it to the states

• Pre-Constitution Press Freedom

  • Articles of Confederation (1783-1789) had no explicit press freedom statement

  • State constitutions had only vague mentions of press freedom

  • Constitutional Congress proposal by Charles Pinckney (SC) to include press freedom

  • Debate: Some believed freedom was natural and didn’t need government protection

The Party Press Era (1790s - Early 1800s)

Rise of Partisan Journalism

• Party Press Politics

  • Historian Frank Luther Mott calls this the “Dark Ages of Partisan Journalism”

  • Federalists vs. Republicans

    • Federalists: Strong national government, central bank, power in New England/Northeast, wary of the French Revolution

    • Republicans: More power to states, feared centralization

• Party Influence on Newspapers

  • Newspapers doubled from 1790-1800

  • Republican newspapers grew from 1795-1800

  • Symbiotic relationship:

    • Parties needed newspapers to promote ideals

    • Newspapers needed parties for financial and political support

Notable Party Press Figures & Newspapers

• John Fenno

  • Bankrolled by Alexander Hamilton

  • Ran most influential Federalist newspaper

  • "He who is not for us is against us"

• Philip Freneau

  • Jefferson funded him to launch a Republican paper

  • Called "The Poet of the American Revolution"

• William Cobbett (Porcupine’s Gazette)

  • Federalist paper, aggressively attacked Republicans

  • Used insults like “Yelper of the democratic kennels”

  • Fled to the U.S. under the alias Peter the Porcupine

• James Callender

  • Initially a Republican mouthpiece

  • Attacked Washington, Adams, and Hamilton

  • Felt betrayed by Jefferson, turned on him and exposed his relationship with Sally Hemings

Alien & Sedition Acts (1798-1801)

• Passed by Federalist Congress, signed by John Adams

  • Adams was not fully supportive but signed anyway

  • Four separate laws extended residency requirements for citizenship

• Used against Republican journalists:

  • 25 arrested, 11 tried, 10 convicted

  • James Callender & Matthew Lyon were targeted

  • No Federalists were arrested

  • Became a Republican campaign issue in the Election of 1800

• Law expired in 1801

Election of 1800 & The Decline of Party Press

• First peaceful transfer of power (lasted until Jan. 6, 2021)

• Hamilton’s Role:

  • Founded the New York Evening Post (Federalist paper)

  • Later dueled with Aaron Burr and was killed in 1804

• Why did the Party Press decline?

  • Newspapers’ business models changed

  • 1846: Congress required bidding for government printing contracts

  • Pros of Party Press: Clearly articulated political ideas, encouraged debate

  • Cons: Spread misleading/inaccurate stories, led to partisan division

The Penny Press Revolution (1830s-1860s)

Social & Technological Factors

• America had more newspapers than any other nation in the 1830s

• US Post Office ensured nationwide delivery

• Steam-powered printing presses lowered costs

• Railroads expanded (23 miles in 1830 → 30,000 miles by 1860)

• Telegraph invented (1844), expanded by 1861

  • Samuel Morse’s invention transformed news transmission

  • Short, concise writing style emerged

Major Penny Press Newspapers

• New York Sun (Benjamin Day, 1833)

  • First true Penny Paper

  • Focused on crime & human interest stories, rather than business/politics

  • Sold on the streets (newsboys) instead of subscriptions

  • Grew to 19,000 daily readers in two years

• New York Herald (James Gordon Bennett, 1835)

  • First to regularly cover Wall Street

  • Covered sensational crimes (e.g., Ellen Jewett murder case)

  • Outraged establishment, clergy, and politicians

  • Largest circulation in the world by 1860 (80,000 daily readers)

• New York Tribune (Horace Greeley, 1841)

  • Strong partisan stances in editorials

  • Hired first female correspondent (Margaret Fuller)

  • Greeley later ran for president in 1872

• New York Times (Henry Raymond, 1851)

  • Aimed at middle/upper-class readers

  • More neutral than Greeley, less sensational than Bennett

Impact of the Penny Press

• Shift from political to mass-market journalism

• Newspaper sales relied on ads & circulation, not political funding

• News became daily, fast, and localized

• Emphasized human-interest stories, crime, and entertainment

The Associated Press (1846-Present)

• Founded as a news cooperative (originally "Harbor News Association")

• First general manager: Alexander Jones

• Not a newspaper—sold news to publishers

• Philosophy: News as objective, fact-based reporting

• Expanded worldwide, still operates today

Summary of Key Trends in Early Journalism

1. Party Press Era (1790s-1840s)

   • Newspapers served as political weapons

   • Federalists vs. Republicans

   • Heavily influenced by politicians & political funding

2. Penny Press (1830s-1860s)

   • Commercial newspapers replaced party-funded papers

   • Cheap, widely distributed, focused on mass readership

   • Crime, entertainment, and human interest replaced political debates

3. Technological Changes (1840s-1860s)

   • Railroads, telegraphs, and printing presses sped up news

   • News shifted from weekly to daily reporting

4. The Associated Press (1846)

   • Created non-partisan, fact-based reporting

   • Set a new standard for journalism separate from political influence

The Civil War and Journalism

Dawning of a New Era in War Reporting

• The most immediate war the public had ever seen, with the most graphic coverage.

• News traveled fast, creating new appetites for journalism.

• Raised national security concerns that have never been fully resolved.

• Brought war reporting into homes more than ever before.

• How much should the military control press reporting?

Significance of the Civil War

• A watershed moment in American history.

• 600,000-700,000 killed, compared to only 25,000 in the Revolutionary War.

• Led to a century-long aftershock.

Leading Up to the Civil War

• African American Population Growth

  • 1830: 2.5 million Black Americans, only 14% free.

  • 1860: 4.4 million Black Americans, only 11% free.

  • 90% of the enslaved population was illiterate in 1860.

Origins of the Black Press

• Freedom’s Journal: First African American-owned and operated newspaper.

  • Founded by Samuel Cornish and John B. Russwurm.

  • Platform for African American writers.

  • Countered racist narratives in mainstream media.

  • Spoke out against lynching and promoted emancipation.

  • Struggled financially and eventually closed.

• Samuel Cornish

  • Believed in emancipation and equality for Black Americans.

  • Free due to his parents’ freedom from slavery.

  • Educated in Philadelphia’s Free African School.

• John B. Russwurm

  • Supported the movement to free slaves and relocate them to Liberia.

• Quote from Freedom’s Journal:

  • “We wish to plead our own cause. Too long have others spoken for us.”

Abolitionist Press & Influential Journalists

William Lloyd Garrison

• Founder of The Liberator (1831)

  • Militant abolitionist.

  • Motto: “Immediate emancipation of two million and a half American slaves.”

  • One of the most influential journalists in American history.

• Background

  • Born into poverty, talented at typesetting.

  • Knew hearts and minds needed to change to abolish slavery.

  • Partnered with Quaker abolitionist Benjamin Lundy.

• Challenges & Influence

  • The Liberator was blamed for Nat Turner’s Rebellion (1831).

  • Georgia offered a $50,000 bounty for his capture.

  • Founded two anti-slavery societies.

  • Nearly lynched in 1835.

  • Had a public rift with Frederick Douglass over the use of violence in abolition.

Frederick Douglass

• Born a slave, became a leading abolitionist and journalist.

• Published Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (1845).

• Founded The North Star newspaper.

  • Motto: “Right is of no sex. Truth is of no color. God is the father of us all, and we are brethren.”

• Supported women’s suffrage at Seneca Falls.

Elijah Lovejoy

• Presbyterian minister and journalist.

• Wrote anti-slavery editorials in Missouri.

• Advocated against lynching and for emancipation.

• Murdered in 1837 by an angry mob, becoming a martyr for the cause.

• Abraham Lincoln later cited Lovejoy’s death as a major event leading to the Civil War.

The Role of Newspapers in the Civil War

• Made issues of sectionalism, union, and slavery impossible to ignore.

• Gave voice to radicals on both sides, fueling confrontation.

• Notable Newspapers

  • New York Tribune (Radical Republican, urged Lincoln to march to Richmond).

  • The North Star (Abolitionist, founded by Douglass).

Civil War Reporting Innovations

• Telegraph became a key reporting tool.

• Rise of war correspondents.

• Importance of illustrations and photography.

• Lincoln administration tried to censor media.

• Initial reports from the Battle of Bull Run were inaccurate.

Civil War Photography

• Mathew Brady

  • Father of photojournalism.

  • Hired 23 war photographers.

  • Took battlefield photos, often depicting dead soldiers.

  • Went bankrupt after the war, dying in poverty.

• Timothy O’Sullivan

  • Worked with Brady, later commissioned as a first lieutenant.

  • Took Harvest of Death photo series, showing Gettysburg casualties.

• Impact of Civil War Photography

  • First war where photography existed.

  • Photos brought the brutal reality of war to the public.

  • Exhibited in galleries, as newspapers couldn’t print photos yet.

The Birth of Investigative Reporting (Post-Civil War)

• Advertising skyrocketed newspaper circulation.

• Technological Advances

  • Typewriter & telephone improved news reporting.

  • Linotype (1884) made printing faster.

  • Halftone printing (1897) enabled photos in newspapers.

• Societal Changes

  • Rise of consumerism and corporate journalism.

  • Immigrant population increased demand for news.

  • By 1900, 55% of newspaper income came from advertising.

Key Investigative Journalists

• James Gordon Bennett Jr. (New York Herald)

  • Ran paper from Europe.

  • Sensationalized news, fabricated a Central Park Zoo animal escape story.

  • Sent Henry Morton Stanley to find David Livingstone.

• Thomas Nast (Harper’s Weekly)

  • Cartoonist, created symbols for Republicans (elephant) and Democrats (donkey).

  • Helped expose Boss Tweed’s corruption.

• The New York Times & Boss Tweed

  • Investigated and exposed Tammany Hall’s corruption.

  • Former auditor leaked proof, leading to Tweed’s conviction (1873).

Ida B. Wells (1862-1931)

• Investigative journalist focused on lynching.

• Used data and records to expose racism and injustice.

The Legacy of Civil War Journalism

• Developed hard news leads for telegraph efficiency.

• Bylines emerged to credit reporters.

• Graphics, maps, and illustrations became more common.

• More accountability in journalism, as military leaders wanted to know who was writing stories.

• The shift toward corporate journalism and investigative reporting followed.

Yellow Journalism (2/25/25)

Definition:

• A type of journalism that presents little or no well-researched news, instead using eye-catching headlines, exaggeration, and sensationalism to sell newspapers.

• Not always accurate; focused on attracting readers.

Key Figures:

• Joseph Pulitzer (New York World)

  • Hungarian immigrant; arrived in the U.S. in 1864.

  • Served in the Civil War, later bought St. Louis Post-Dispatch in 1876.

  • Bought New York World in 1883, cut price to 2 cents.

  • Advocated for immigrants and the underprivileged.

  • Launched a campaign to raise $200,000 for the base of the Statue of Liberty.

  • Hired Nellie Bly in 1887 (famous investigative journalist).

  • Established Pulitzer Prizes at Columbia University.

• William Randolph Hearst (New York Journal)

  • Son of a millionaire; took over San Francisco Examiner in 1887.

  • Bought New York Journal in 1895 for $185,000, cut price to 1 cent.

  • Raided Pulitzer’s staff, gaining higher circulation.

  • Known for bold headlines, sensational stories, and influence in the Spanish-American War.

  • Built a media empire; Citizen Kane (1940s) was based on his life.

Yellow Journalism Origins:

• Came from a comic strip: The Yellow Kid by Richard Outcault.

• First appeared in Pulitzer’s World in 1896.

• Hearst hired Outcault for New York Journal, so Pulitzer hired another artist to continue the strip.

• Led to rivalry between Hearst and Pulitzer.

Spanish-American War (1898):

• Cuba was a colony of Spain; significant unrest.

• Pulitzer and Hearst fueled public anger, increasing support for U.S. intervention.

• Evangelina Cisneros: Cuban prisoner whom Hearst helped free, turning her into a media sensation.

• USS Maine explosion in Cuba—no clear cause, but newspapers blamed Spain, escalating tensions.

• War lasted April–October 1898.

• Hearst even took prisoners on his personal yacht.

• War coverage hurt Pulitzer financially but was the peak of yellow journalism.

Journalism Categories by Pulitzer:

• The Crusade

• The Exposé

• The Scandal Story

• The Stunt Story (e.g., Nellie Bly’s investigations)

• The Sob Story

Nellie Bly (Elizabeth Cochrane):

• Investigative journalist, went undercover in an insane asylum (Blackwell’s Island Investigation).

• First woman to enter the Chicago Press Club.

• Went around the world in 72 days (inspired by Around the World in 80 Days).

• Believed journalists should create news when necessary.

• Later married and left journalism for years.

Muckrakers (2/27/25)

Definition:

• Journalists, novelists, and critics who exposed corruption in business and government.

• Coined by Teddy Roosevelt, who saw them as both necessary and potentially radical.

• Investigative journalism focused on social justice and accountability.

Context:

• Gilded Age: massive wealth gap, no income tax, weak labor laws.

• Big Corporations: JP Morgan (finance), Rockefeller (Standard Oil), Carnegie (steel).

• Lack of government oversight led to unsafe working conditions and extreme poverty.

Key Muckrakers:

• Ida B. Wells – Investigated and exposed lynching in America.

• Jacob Riis – How the Other Half Lives (used flash photography to reveal slum conditions).

• Ida Tarbell – Wrote exposé on Rockefeller and Standard Oil, exposing unfair practices.

• Lincoln Steffens – Exposed political corruption in Shame of the Cities.

McClure’s Magazine:

• Led by Samuel Sidney McClure, gathered top journalists.

• Published groundbreaking investigative reports.

Impact of Muckrakers:

• Professionalized journalism.

• Led to social reforms and increased awareness of corruption.

• Encouraged government intervention and trust-busting policies.

The Early Black Press & Abolitionist Movement

• Early Black Press in the 1800s

• Abolitionist Press

• "We wish to plead our cause. Too long have others spoken for us."

• Ida B. Wells and Frederick Douglass

Robert Abbott & The Chicago Defender

• Robert Abbott (Born 1869 in Georgia, grew up dirt poor)

  • Inspired by Frederick Douglass' speech at the 1893 Chicago Columbia Exposition, where Douglass criticized the exclusion of African Americans.

  • Founded The Chicago Defender in 1905 as a weekly newspaper.

  • By WWI, it was the most influential Black newspaper nationwide.

  • Issues Abbott fought against: lynching, discrimination, racism in media.

  • The Defender used yellow journalism techniques from Randolph Hearst and Pulitzer.

  • The Defender criticized the racist film Birth of a Nation (which was screened in the White House by Woodrow Wilson).

The Great Migration (1916-1970)

• 1916-1919: 500,000 African Americans moved from the South.

• WWI & Industrialization: Opened job opportunities in the North.

• The Chicago Defender played a role in migration:

  • Used a creative circulation system by distributing newspapers through train passengers (Pullman Railroad Company).

• 1960-1970: 7 million African Americans moved from the South to the North.

• The Warmth of Other Suns (Book documenting the Great Migration).

The Black Press & WWII

• Double V Campaign (Fight for democracy abroad & at home, desegregate the military).

• John Sengstacke (Abbott’s successor at The Defender)

  • Pushed Truman’s Executive Order to desegregate the military.

• Six Triple Eight (All-Black Women’s Army Regiment in WWII)

  • Sent to Paris to deliver backlogged mail to soldiers.

• The Black Press & Patriotism Paradox

  • Should they be loyal to a country that mistreats them?

  • Framed as: "If we are fighting for democracy in Europe, why not fight for democracy at home?"

• Black Press Accused of Treason

  • Compromise by AG Biddle allowed them to continue publishing.

• 1944: FDR allowed the first Black reporters into the White House.

Post-War Civil Rights & Journalism

• Jackie Robinson’s Integration of Baseball

  • A major story in both white and Black newspapers.

• Ethel Payne ("First Lady of the Black Press")

  • Granddaughter of enslaved people, grew up in journalism.

  • Pioneered Civil Rights Reporting.

  • First Black reporter to cover Vietnam.

  • July 7, 1954: Stood out in a White House press conference by questioning Eisenhower on segregation.

• Ray Stannard Baker (1905)

  • White journalist who wrote What is a Lynching?

  • Exposed racial violence in both the North and South.

  • Led to his book Following the Color Line, which became foundational for the NAACP.

Modern Black Press & Media Representation

• Ebony Magazine (Nov. 1945) – Pictorial voices of African Americans.

• Trayvon Martin coverage highlighted media disparities.

• April Ryan – Prominent African American journalist, formerly with CNN.

• The Grio – Media platform geared towards Black Americans.

• Black Press Today

  • 91% of African Americans believe Black media is more relevant than ever.

  • Still underrepresented in mainstream media.