Court Cases

Brown v. Board of Education: This landmark 1954 case declared that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, overturning Plessy v. Ferguson "separate but equal" doctrine.

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke: In 1978, the Supreme Court ruled that while affirmative action in college admissions is constitutional, racial quotas are not permissible.

Baker v. Carr: This 1962 case established the principle of "one person, one vote," allowing federal courts to review redistricting issues.

Shaw v. Reno: In 1993, the Court ruled that redistricting based on race must be held to a standard of strict scrutiny under the equal protection clause.

Buckley v. Valeo: The 1976 decision upheld limits on campaign contributions but ruled that spending money to influence elections is a form of constitutionally protected free speech.

Citizens United v. FEC: The 2010 ruling held that corporate funding of independent political broadcasts in candidate elections cannot be limited under the First Amendment.

NY Times v. United States (Pentagon Papers Case): In 1971, the Court ruled that the government could not prevent the New York Times from publishing classified documents regarding the Vietnam War, citing the First Amendment's freedom of the press.

Economic concepts

Business Cycle: The business cycle refers to the fluctuations in economic activity over time, characterized by periods of economic expansion (growth) and contraction (recession).

Deficits, Surpluses, and National Debt: 

   - Deficit: When the government's expenditures exceed its revenues in a fiscal year, resulting in the need to borrow money.

   - Surplus: When the government's revenues exceed its expenditures, allowing it to pay down debt.

   - National Debt: The total amount of money that a country owes to its creditors, accumulated over years of budget deficits.

Role of the Federal Reserve: The Federal Reserve, often referred to as the Fed, is the central banking system of the United States, which regulates the nation's monetary policy, stabilizes the financial system, and provides banking services to depository institutions and the federal government.

Monetary Policy: Monetary policy involves managing the money supply and interest rates by the Federal Reserve to control inflation, manage employment levels, and stabilize the currency. This can include actions like changing the federal funds rate and engaging in open market operations.

Fiscal Policy: Fiscal policy refers to the government's use of taxation and spending to influence the economy. It involves adjusting tax rates and public spending to manage economic growth, reduce unemployment, and control inflation.

Civil Rights

Brown v. Board of Education: This landmark 1954 Supreme Court case declared that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine established by Plessy v. Ferguson, and paved the way for desegregation and the civil rights movement.

Civil Rights Act of 1964: This comprehensive civil rights legislation outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, ended segregation in public places, and banned employment discrimination, significantly advancing civil rights in the United States.

Women's Issues: Women's issues in the 1960s and 1970s, highlighted by the feminist movement, focused on achieving equality in the workplace, education, and reproductive rights, leading to legislative changes such as Title IX, which prohibited sex discrimination in education, and increased awareness of gender equality.

Affirmative Action: Affirmative action policies were implemented to address past discrimination and provide opportunities in education and employment for historically marginalized groups, aiming to create a more level playing field.

Bakke Case: In Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978), the Supreme Court ruled that racial quotas in college admissions were unconstitutional but upheld the use of race as one of many factors in the admissions process, maintaining a form of affirmative action.

Political Culture and Public Opinion:

Forces that influence political culture: Political culture is influenced by historical experiences, socio-economic conditions, education systems, religious beliefs, and family structures. These elements shape how individuals perceive government, authority, and their role in the political process.

Ways of measuring public opinion: Public opinion is measured through surveys, polls, and focus groups. These methods gather data on people's attitudes, beliefs, and preferences regarding various political issues and candidates.

Polls: Polls are systematic methods of collecting data from a sample of individuals to gauge public opinion. They can vary in methodology, including telephone surveys, online questionnaires, and face-to-face interviews.

Public opinion - can change quickly: Public opinion can shift rapidly due to major events, media coverage, political campaigns, and social movements. These changes can significantly influence political decisions and election outcomes.

Voting and Political Participation

Presidential elections vs. Congressional elections: Presidential elections are held every four years and involve the entire country voting for a single office, while Congressional elections occur every two years, with voters selecting representatives for the House of Representatives and a portion of the Senate.

Open primary: In an open primary, voters can choose on election day which party's primary they want to participate in, regardless of their own party affiliation.

Closed primary: A closed primary is restricted to voters who are registered members of the party holding the primary, limiting participation to ensure that only party members influence the candidate selection.

Motor Voter: The National Voter Registration Act of 1993, also known as the Motor Voter Act, requires states to offer voter registration opportunities at motor vehicle departments, making it easier for people to register to vote.

Voting Rights Act of 1965: This landmark legislation outlawed discriminatory voting practices, such as literacy tests and poll taxes, and provided for federal oversight of voter registration in areas with a history of discriminatory practices.

State measures that encourage/restrict voting: States encourage voting through measures like early voting, mail-in ballots, and online registration, while restrictive measures can include voter ID laws, purging of voter rolls, and limiting polling place availability.

Prospective voting: This type of voting involves voters making decisions based on predictions about how a candidate will perform in the future, considering their policies and promises.

Retrospective voting: In retrospective voting, voters make their decisions based on a candidate's past performance and the outcomes of their previous actions in office. 

Political Parties and Elections

Third Party influences: Third parties in the United States often influence major elections by bringing attention to specific issues, impacting the platforms of major parties, and occasionally affecting the outcome by drawing votes away from major party candidates.

Campaign Finance laws: These laws regulate the amount of money that can be contributed to political campaigns, aiming to prevent undue influence by wealthy individuals and organizations and to ensure transparency in the sources of campaign funding.

National Conventions: National conventions are held by political parties to formally nominate their presidential candidates, adopt party platforms, and unify the party before the general election.

Primaries, Caucuses and General election: Primaries and caucuses are state-level processes where party members vote for their preferred presidential candidate, which leads to the selection of delegates who will support that candidate at the national convention. The general election is the final election where voters select among the nominees from all parties to elect the president.

Independent expenditures: These are funds spent by individuals or groups, not coordinated with any candidate's campaign, to advocate for the election or defeat of specific candidates, often through advertisements.

Role of interest groups: Interest groups influence public policy and decision-making by lobbying government officials, funding campaigns, and mobilizing voters to support their causes.

The revolving door: This term refers to the movement of individuals between roles as legislators or regulators and positions in industries affected by the legislation and regulation, raising concerns about conflicts of interest and regulatory capture.

Media influences 

Role of the Media: The media serves as a critical intermediary between the government and the public, shaping public opinion, providing information, and holding officials accountable.

Horse Race Journalism: This type of journalism focuses on the competitive aspects of political campaigns, emphasizing who is ahead or behind in the polls rather than substantive policy issues.

Gatekeeper: The media acts as a gatekeeper by determining which stories and issues are important enough to receive public attention, thereby influencing the national agenda.

Scorekeeper: The media also serves as a scorekeeper by tracking political successes and failures, often through polling and election coverage, and influencing public perceptions of political viability.

Watchdog: As a watchdog, the media monitors and investigates the actions of government officials and institutions, exposing wrongdoing and advocating for transparency and accountability.

Types of Media Today: Media today includes traditional outlets such as newspapers, television, and radio, as well as digital platforms like social media, online news sites, and blogs, which have significantly expanded the ways information is disseminated and consumed.

Making public policy

Agenda setting: Involves identifying and prioritizing issues that require government attention, often influenced by public opinion, media, and interest groups.

Policy formulation: The process where policymakers develop strategies and propose solutions to address the issues identified during agenda setting, often involving research, analysis, and discussions among stakeholders.

Policy adoption: Occurs when the proposed policy solutions are officially selected and enacted by the appropriate governmental bodies, such as legislatures, executives, or regulatory agencies.

Policy implementation: Involves putting the adopted policies into action through the development of regulations, the allocation of resources, and the establishment of administrative processes to ensure the policy objectives are met.

Policy evaluation: The assessment of the implemented policies to determine their effectiveness, efficiency, and impact, which helps in identifying areas for improvement and informs future policy making decisions.