unit 5 agricultural Revolution

1. Describe the following Agricultural Revolutions. What were the long-term effects of each?

   1. First (Neolithic) Agricultural Revolution

Origin of farming, Once hunters and gatherers no longer had to move around looking for food, they formed settlements. These became civilizations with cities, trade, currency and government. Agriculture enabled citizens to specialize in other areas (bankers, blacksmiths, soldiers etc.) because food was now readily available from farmers.

2. Second Agricultural Revolution

began in England, huge technological advancement leading to a huge increase in food production. Technology includes:

Iron/Steel plough – reduced labor required to work fields; break through hard soil; increase crop yield

Seed Drill – plant and cover seeds quickly, increase crop yield

Harvester – increase harvest, reduce labor, faster harvest and therefore more crops saved

Grain elevator – increased storage space and food supply, protected from animals and weather

Barbed wire – fencing to keep animals from straying, protect crops from animals

Fertilizer – increase crop yield

3. Third Agricultural Revolution/Green Revolution

·         GR was mid-20^th century advances in science, research and development

·         These developments led to higher yielding, disease resistant, faster growing varieties of grains, especially rice, corn, and wheat

·         The GR led to more efficient farming equipment and practices. In particular, the development of high yielding varieties of cereal grains and expansion of irrigation infrastructure (especially in India)

·         Increased the use of fertilizer and pesticides in Asia and the Americas

·         It also disproved Malthus’s theory that food couldn’t keep up with population. However, Borlaug understood that population couldn’t continue to rise, and needed to slow down to prevent disaster

2. List the major agricultural hearths and their crops.
   

3. How did the Columbian Exchange contribute to the diffusion of crops around the world? What major crops and animals were introduced to the New World? What major crops and animals were introduced to the Old World?

Food types and animals were transported across the Atlantic between the Americas and Afro-Eurasia.

4. Define the following alterations to the landscape for agriculture. List a benefit and a negative consequence for each. 

   1. Terracing: Digging steps into the mountainside to create flat surfaces. Examples: rice growing in China, corn in S. America

Pros – planting is easier, land collects rainfall instead of it running down a slope, reduces soil erosion (which happens with running water)

Cons – heavy rainfall can lead to landslides

2.  Irrigation: Process of diverting water from its natural course to aid in the production of crops. Used since 6,000 BCE

Pros – contributed greatly to feeding an ever growing population

Cons – disrupts natural drainage and regeneration of soil caused by natural flooding; causes salinization which decreases crop yield; causes subsidence when fossil water is taken and ground subsides.

3.   Draining Wetlands: Land is drained in order to turn it into farmland.

Pros – drained land is rich in nutrients; increased farmland increases carrying capacity

Cons – reduces biodiversity in both plants and animals; wetlands are natural filters that protect and promote surface water and groundwater quality.

4. Slash and burn: Vegetation in an area of forest is cut down and burned in place. The ash provides soil nutrients allowing the soil to be farmed for a few years before it becomes depleted and is abandoned. The land returns to its natural state and the farmer moves on to burn and plant in a new field. As people are required to move, it is also known as shifting cultivation

Pros – on a small scale it enriches the soil for a few years; environment recovers quite quickly

Cons – on a large scale it will seriously damage the environment, leading to desertification. This will happen when vegetation is pulled and new crops don’t have extensive roots. The roots don’t keep topsoil in place. An example was the 1930’s Dust Bowl in the U.S.

5. Compare and contrast commercial and subsistence agriculture. 

a.       Subsistence Farming

Farmers grow food that they need to live on.

Example – people in sub-Saharan Africa who grow all their food on a small piece of land near their village

Economic factors – they are poor, and do not have the means to buy food.

b.       Commercial Farming

Farmers grow food to sell.

Example – US farmers in Iowa growing wheat to sell to large manufacturers of bread

Economic factors – there is an available market for their goods; often there are government subsidies

6. Define Enclosure Acts. How did these laws impact farming in Britain?

A series of acts that enabled rich landowners to purchase and put fences (enclosures) around land that had previously been available for poor farmers to use to graze animals and grow crops (commons)

7. Compare and contrast GMOs and Hybridization as they relate to the Green Revolution. 

Genetically modified organisms – engineering techniques changed the DNA of a seed. Began in 1970s and became widely used in the 1990s. Most US cotton, soybeans and corn are GMO varieties. Pros – increase yield, resistance to disease, weed killers and pests. Cons – not enough research on the potential health impacts.

Hybridization is the breeding of two plants. Globalization meant more plants were available to crossbreed. Example – Indonesian long grain rice and Taiwanese dwarf rice – led to longer, denser rice.

8. What are the positive consequences of the Green Revolution?

Pros – farms became larger and farming more efficient, farmers grew crops for profit

9. What are the negative consequences of the Green Revolution?

Cons – people were forced off land and had to leave villages and go to the cities for work in factories.

10. Where was the Green Revolution most successful? Least successful?

In Asia and Latin America, the success of the Green Revolution led to massive migration to cities. This huge supply of labor is part of the reason so many multinational corporations opened factories in these regions. 

The GR wasn’t successful in Africa because:

· It has a greater diversity of soil and climate and developing fertilizers proved to be very expensive

· There are many regions with harsh environments which were too challenging

· It has poor transportation

· Staple (main) crops weren’t included in hybridization programs – sorghum, millet, cassava, yams

· 1950 – 2000 the largest growth in population was in Africa, but without the benefits of the GR, 30% of Africa is food insecure

· Governments and private foundations are working on new technology to develop a new GR in Africa

11. Describe each of the following agricultural practices. Include example locations and typical climates for each. (pg. 210)

    1. Pastoral Nomadism: People travel from place to place in LDCs with their herds of domesticated animals. They rely on their animals for food, milk, and leather for clothes and shelter. They often trade meat for crops with subsistence farmers.

    2. Shifting Cultivation with slash and burn – also known as swidden agriculture: Farmers clear land by burning the vegetation, which then adds nitrogen to the soil. New crops are grown until the land becomes less fertile. Farmers move on to new vegetation-rich land, and repeat this whole process. Farmers are usually subsistence farmers: S.E. Asia – rice, S. America – corn/maize, sub-Saharan Africa – sorghum and millet

    3. Plantation farming – large commercial farms specializing in one crop, usually established during colonialism. Usually in the tropics where it is hot and humid. Cash crops – coffee, cocoa, rubber, sugar, bananas, tobacco, tea, cotton. Labor intensive using local cheap labor. Crops are often processed close by to reduce transport costs.

    4.  Mixed Crop/Livestock farming – most crops on these farms are fed directly to livestock. This livestock will be either slaughtered, or is dairy cattle. Manure is used to fertilize these crops. Found in Midwest USA. The crops are mostly soybeans or corn. These crops are also used for oil or other products.

    5.  Grain farming – wheat is often grown in regions too dry for mixed crops – Russia, China, India, USA. Usually consumed by people rather than animal. Spring wheat is planted early spring and harvested in the autumn (fall). Grown in colder regions – Montana, N & S Dakota, Canadian prairies. Winter wheat is planted in the fall and harvested in early summer. Grown in warmer regions- Kansas, Oklahoma, Colorado

    6. Commercial Gardening: Commercial gardening & fruit farming is known as market gardening – Cali & and SE USA due to long warm growing seasons.

    7. Truck farming – these market gardening products were mostly trucked to urban markets for sale. Now they are mostly canned or frozen. Fruit and veg grown in the US as a result of truck farming include lettuce, broccoli, apples, oranges and tomatoes.

    8. Dairy farming used to be local to the urban areas. It still is in LDCs. However, now the milkshed – the distance the milk/milk products are delivered – can be further because of refrigerated transportation. Also local farms have disappeared to be replaced by factory farms that supply a greater area and have a larger output.

    9. Mediterranean agriculture- Practiced in regions with hot-dry summers, mild winters, narrow valleys, irrigation systems. Examples – SW Asia, S Europe, N Africa, California. Crops – figs, dates, olives, grape. Transhumance – herders move their animals from higher areas in summer to lower areas/valleys in winter for protection. Animals are usually goats and sheep.

    10. Livestock ranching - Commercial grazing of animals in specific areas. Like pastoral nomadism, it is found in dry areas. Found in the west of the USA, pampas of Argentina, Australia.

12. How does “milkshed” impact dairy farming?

Milkshed refers to the distance milk can be transported before it perishes. Prior to improved transportation technology, milksheds were very short distances and forced dairy farms to locate/take up space close to market. Milksheds continue to grow with the introduction of cool chains and refrigerated trucks. 

13. How does transhumance relate to both agriculture and migration?

Transhumance is a form of seasonal migration where herders move their animals from higher areas in summer to lower areas/valleys in winter for protection. Animals are usually goats and sheep.

14. Compare and contrast extensive farming and intensive farming. 

Intensive:

Commercial – near urban centers or transportation hubs ex. dairy farming. Use large amounts of machinery and labor on large amounts of land

Subsistence – near densely populated areas with local markets to sell corn, cassava, millet, yams. Labor intensive on small plots

Extensive:

Commercial – near transport and processing centers for ranching and some grain farming. Use minimal labor and machinery on large amounts of land

Subsistence – low population areas with access to local markets. Examples are pastoral nomadism and shifting cultivation. Minimal machinery but labor intensive on large plot

15. What is the difference between double cropping and intercropping? 

Double cropping - planting in the same land twice within one year

Intercropping - planting two plants in the same plot of land at the same time

16. Define agribusiness. How does agribusiness incorporate a supply chain (commodity chain)?

Agribusiness includes all steps of production – from growing to processing, transport, marketing and retail. This is called the supply chain. All businesses may be owned by one corporation.

Global markets and competition has led to large scale farming replacing small farms

Vertical integration – one company owns all businesses from growing crops to selling them in supermarket. Example – Kroger grows wheat, processes it into bread, and sells it in its supermarkets

Horizontal integration – one company owns a number of businesses at the same point in the supply chain. Example – Heinz dominates the food processing step of the supply chain

17. What are the benefits and negative consequences of monoculture?

Large-scale production of a lucrative crop can result in increased profit. However, over a period of time, the soil may become depleted of essential nutrients without diverse crops designed to replenish those nutrients. Additionally, large-scale production of one crop may require extensive, irreversible modification to the land. 

18. Define colonialism and neocolonialism. 

Colonialism is the historical practice of exploiting land for raw materials even at the expense of the native population. Neocolonialism describes the current exploitation of LDCs by MDCs for raw materials, cheap labor and access to trade routes/markets. 

19. How have colonialism and neocolonialism contributed to regional interdependence?

Powerful countries and current MDCs have influenced rural land use in less developed countries, affecting their inability to be independent economically. Additionally, the global diffusion of goods has led to the demand for crops from all over the world. That demand leads to interdependence between regions that cannot meet that demand alone. 

20. How does the fair trade movement promote sustainable farming practices?

Fair trade movement is an effort to promote higher incomes for farmers, and for more sustainable farming practices.

Fair trade products include cotton and coffee.

Prices are often increased, but it means the farmer gets a big share of the money.

Chapter 14

21. Using dots, draw an example of clustered vs dispersed settlements. 

22. How are the following used to describe rural land use?

Field boundaries in England – measured in Metes and Bounds.

Meets – short distances (from the oak tree to the corner of the barn)

Bounds – larger areas between streams and roads

English settlers in the US switched to townships which were 6 miles square

French settlers recognized the importance of access to rivers and developed the French long-lot system, long strips of land with access to the rivers. This is found in Quebec and Louisiana.

23. Who is Johann von Thünen? What is the purpose of his agricultural model?

German farmer Johann von Thünen created a model that suggested a pattern for the types of products farmers produce at different positions relative to the market where they sold their goods.

Assumptions – farmers want to make a profit, there is one market, land is isotropic (flat and featureless)

Decisions about what to produce were based on:

a. transport costs which are proportional to distance (the further the distance, the higher the cost).

b. land is cheaper the further it is from market (distance decay)

c. intensive land use is closer to market as land is more expensive

d. perishable goods are closer to market

24. Draw von Thünen’s model below. Label and define each zone. 

25. How does the bid rent curve impact the location of each zone in von Thünen’s model?

Zones are dedicated to products based on how much land they take up. Land closer to the city is more expensive. Therefore forest and grains, which use an extensive amount of land, must be located farther away from the market. 

26. What are the flaws in von Thünen’s model? What does the model not account for? 

1.      It needs to be adapted to actual conditions and changes in technology

2.      Land is not isotropic and if there is a river the rings would need to change as rivers allow for cheap transport

3.      Some areas have more of an advantage due to climate and soil

4.      There may be more than one market

      5. New forms of transport, including refrigerated transport meant dairy, fruit and vegetables    could travel further without spoiling.

27. How have improvements in technology impacted where agricultural practices are located today?

Agricultural practices can now take place farther from markets thanks to improved transportation networks and cool chains. 

28. Describe the aquaculture and the Blue Revolution. 

Aquaculture is the practice of raising and harvesting fish and other forms of food that live water. Often referred to as the Blue Revolution, the practice is now the fastest growing form of food production on the planet. 

29. Briefly describe the following environmental issues associated with agriculture. 

a.   extensive fertilizer and pesticide use

1.       Farmers used to use human and animal waste as fertilizer. Now chemicals are used, but if they get into the water supplies they may cause significant harm.

2.       Pesticides and herbicides can harm the natural ecosystem and damage life forms.

3.       Fossil fuels used for tractors causes air pollution, and spills cause soil and water pollution

b.  river and aquifer depletion

1.       70% of worldwide water is used for farming, often wasted due to inefficient irrigation – farmers use too much, have leaky pipes, or try to grow crops in land that is just too dry.

2.       Poor irrigation can cause the following problems:

-          Increase salinization (salt) in soil which prevents plants growing

-          Reduce amount of underground water in aquifers (ex. Pakistan and India)

-          Reduce water in lakes and rivers. Ex. Aral Sea has shrunk 60% in 50 years

c.   loss of biodiversity

1.       Improved varieties of crops lead farmers to abandon older varieties or grow fewer varieties. Specializing in one crop is known as Monocropping or Monoculture – it reduces the diversity of insects, animals and other organisms that depend on other varieties of plants.

2.       To prevent abandoned varieties from becoming extinct, scientists save seeds in seed banks. Ex. The Svalbard Global Seed Vault is a secure seed bank on the Norwegian island of Spitsbergen near Longyearbyen in the remote Arctic Svalbard archipelago, about 1,300 kilometers from the North Pole.

d.  soil degradation

1.       Too many animals grazing will lead to overgrazing – pulling the roots out that keep soil in place. This soil erodes and causes desertification. Ex. Sahel

2.       Pastoral nomads have less land available because

-          Governments prevent them following traditional migratory routes that cross borders

-          Some pasture is now irrigated and used for growing crops

-          Other areas of former pasture are now being mined

3.       Other causes of soil erosion – overuse by farmers, lack of crop rotation, failure to replace nutrients, over-plowing.

e.  animal waste

The huge amount of waste arising from feedlots leads to air and water pollution.

30. Describe women’s changing role in agriculture. How do women’s roles vary between MDCs and LDCs? (pg. 240)

Production:

a.       Women make up 40% of the world’s agricultural labor force; in subsistence farming regions, it’s 70%

b.       In LDCs, men migrate to urban areas for work and women stay home working the farms and selling their products at local markets

c.       Women are less involved when farms have been modernized and use technology

d.       In agribusiness women have roles in raising crops, tending animals, processing products, management, sales, distribution, research.

Preparation:

a.       Most women in MDCs work outside the home and therefore rely on more convenience food

b.       The food industry has committed significant research funds to develop more of these foods

c.       Men are more involved in food preparation that previous generations (just ask Mr. Hartley!)

d.       People eat out more. In 2015 for the first time in history, Americans spent more money eating out that they spent on groceries. Commercial Agriculture

❏ Farming with the goal of

making money

❏ Large-scale

❏ Intended for widespread

distribution of crops

❏ Common crops - wheat,

maize, tea, coffee,

sugarcane, cashew, rubber,

banana, cotton

Subsistence Agriculture

❏ Farming with the goal of

feeding yourself/your

family/your community

❏ Small-scale

❏ Crops are grown for

livelihood and survival, not

profit

❏ Efforts provide little or no

surplus (extra)

VS

Extensive Agriculture

EXTENSIVE = LAND

Fewer inputs of capital + paid

labor relative to the space being

used -a lot of land compared to

the invested capital and labor

Ex:

❏ Shifting Cultivation

❏ Nomadic Herding

❏ Ranching

Intensive Agriculture

INTENSIVE = LABOR

Greater inputs of capital + paid

labor relative to the space being

used - a lot of capital and labor

compared to the amount of land

Ex:

❏ Rice Farming

❏ Market Gardening

❏ Plantation Farming

VS

I. Influences on Agricultural Practices

Agricultural practices are based on the physical environment, climatic

conditions, and established agricultural regions.

Physical Features:

❏ Climate

❏ Soil type

❏ Soil nutrient

levels

❏ Access to fresh

water

❏ Landforms

Consequences:

❏ Desertification

❏ Pollution

❏ Nutrient depletion

❏ Loss of

biodiversity

New Technology:

❏ Irrigation

❏ Terracing

❏ Deforestation

❏ Draining of

wetlands

❏ Fertilizer

I. Influences on Agricultural Practices

Agricultural practices are based on the physical environment, climatic

conditions, and established agricultural regions.

Climate + Soil Types + Levels of Precipitation

=

which crops can grow and which animals can thrive

Most of the world’s land area supports agricultural activity with the exception

of high latitudes (N+S Poles) and high altitudes (mountains).

I. Influences on

Agricultural Practices

Agricultural practices are based on the

physical environment, climatic conditions,

and established agricultural regions.

Influences on

Agricultural Practices

Agricultural practices are based on the

physical environment, climatic conditions,

and established agricultural regions.

Pastoral Nomadism

❏ Climate: Drylands, Arid, Semiarid

❏ Locations: SW, C, + E Asia, N Africa

❏ Extensive

❏ Nomads take care of animals that

are necessary for their survival

❏ Cattle, camels, reindeer, goats,

yak, sheep, horses

❏ Animals are raised for meat,

milk, and hides

❏ Herds are moved to different

pastures for constant food

sources

I. Influences on

Agricultural Practices

Agricultural practices are based on the

physical environment, climatic conditions,

and established agricultural regions.

Shifting Cultivation

❏ Climate: Tropical

❏ Locations: Latin America,

Sub-Saharan Africa, SE Asia

❏ Extensive

❏ Process:

❏ Land is cleared (sometimes by

slash + burn)

❏ Crops are planted and

harvested repeatedly until soil

is depleted of nutrients

❏ Farmers move to new area and

clear the land

❏ NOT the same as crop rotation

I. Influences on

Agricultural Practices

Agricultural practices are based on the

physical environment, climatic conditions,

and established agricultural regions.

Plantation

❏ Climate: Tropical, Subtropical

❏ Locations: Latin America,

Sub-Saharan Africa, S+SE Asia

❏ Intensive

❏ Large, commercial farm that

specializes in one crop

❏ Coffee, cocoa, rubber,

sugarcane, bananas, tobacco,

tea, cotton, coconuts

❏ Developed out of colonialism

❏ Often exploits cheap labor in

nearby populations

I. Influences on

Agricultural Practices

Agricultural practices are based on the

physical environment, climatic conditions,

and established agricultural regions.

Mixed Crop/Livestock

❏ Climate: Cold + Warm Mid-Latitude

❏ Locations: Midwestern US +

Canada, Central Europe

❏ Extensive+Intensive

❏ Integrated system found in develop

regions

❏ Majority of crops feed

livestock, livestock used for

meat or milk, animal manure

used to fertilize crops

❏ Most common grains: corn +

soybeans

I. Influences on

Agricultural Practices

Agricultural practices are based on the

physical environment, climatic conditions,

and established agricultural regions.

Grain

❏ Climate: Cold Mid-Latitude

❏ Locations: N Central US, S Central

Canada, Eastern Europe

❏ Extensive

❏ Most common > wheat

❏ Mostly consumed by people

❏ US is 4th in wheat production

❏ Two distinct types:

❏ Spring wheat: planted in early

spring, harvested in early

autumn

❏ Winter wheat: planted in fall,

harvested in early summer

I. Influences on

Agricultural Practices

Agricultural practices are based on the

physical environment, climatic conditions,

and established agricultural regions.

Commercial Gardening

❏ Climate: Warm Mid-Latitude

❏ Locations: SE US, SE Australia

❏ Intensive

❏ AKA: Truck Farming

❏ Traditionally located within driving

distance from market

❏ Today > most products are sold to

companies for canning + freezing

❏ Growing seasons change where we

get our food

❏ US products = lettuce, broccoli,

apples, oranges, + tomatoes

I. Influences on

Agricultural Practices

Agricultural practices are based on the

physical environment, climatic conditions,

and established agricultural regions.

Dairy

❏ Climate: Cold + Warm Mid-Latitude

❏ Locations: NE US, SE Canada, NW

Europe

❏ Intensive

❏ Traditionally > dairy farms were

local

❏ Today > refrigeration expanded the

milk shed

❏ Dairy farms owned by

corporations instead of

families

❏ Dairy farms still local in

developing countries

I. Influences on

Agricultural Practices

Agricultural practices are based on the

physical environment, climatic conditions,

and established agricultural regions.

Mediterranean

❏ Climate: Warm Mid-Latitude

❏ Locations: S Coast of Europe, N

Coast of Africa, Pacific Coast of US,

S tip of Africa, Chile

❏ Extensive + Intensive

❏ Crops = figs, dates, olives, grapes,

cheese, wine, lamb, some wheat

❏ Crop farming > intensive

❏ Herding > extensive

❏ Transhumance = seasonal

herding of animals from higher

elevations in the summer to

lower elevations in winter

I. Influences on

Agricultural Practices

Agricultural practices are based on the

physical environment, climatic conditions,

and established agricultural regions.

Livestock Ranching

❏ Climate: Drylands, Arid, Semi-Arid

❏ Locations: W North America, SE

South America, C Asia, S Africa

❏ Extensive

❏ Commercial grazing of animals that

are confined to a specific area

❏ Found in areas too dry for growing

large quantities of crops

❏ Countries: US, Argentina, Brazil,

Uruguay, Spain, Portugal, China,

Australia

I. Influences on

Agricultural Practices

Agricultural practices are based on the

physical environment, climatic conditions,

and established agricultural regions.

Intensive Subsistence

❏ Climate: Warm Mid-Latitude

❏ Locations: S, SE, + E Asia

❏ Intensive

❏ Farming for the purpose of feeding

yourself/your family

❏ Lack of technology = need for more

intensive labor

❏ Wet rice most common

❏ Wet rice not dominant regions =

wheat, barley, legumes

I. Agricultural Practices Shape the Landscape

Terracing Irrigation

I. Agricultural Practices Shape the Landscape

Deforestation Slash + Burn

II. Rural Settlement Patterns

Clustered Settlements

❏ European villages/hamlets

❏ People live near each other -

walking distance to fields,

school, church

❏ Strong sense of community

II. Rural Settlement Patterns

Dispersed Settlements

❏ North American farms

❏ Many farm properties over

100 acres

❏ Agricultural villages were

rare because farms were so

spread out

II. Rural Settlement Patterns

Linear Settlements

❏ French settlements

❏ Correlates with the French

Long-Lot System

❏ In a “line” along rivers or

bodies of water

III. Rural Survey Methods

Metes + Bounds

❏ England before 1785

❏ Used to describe plot

boundaries

❏ Metes - short distances

❏ Ex: “here to the oak tree”,

“100 yards north to the

corner of the barn”

❏ Bounds - larger areas, based

on larger physical features

like streams or roads

❏ English colonists in America

also used this system until...

Township + Range

❏ Public Land Survey System

of 1785

❏ Used to standardize

organization of landscape

❏ Townships = 6 mi. X 6 mi.

❏ Sections = 640 acres (each

square mile)

❏ Ranges - a measure of the

distance east or west in

units of 6 miles

❏ First seen in the US in the

Midwest

Rectangular/Linear shapes a

result of the Public Land Survey

System (1785)

Colonies and older states used

metes + bounds (leading to

their irregular shapes)

III. Rural Survey Methods

Long-Lot System

❏ France + French settlements

in North America

❏ Farms were long thin

sections of land,

perpendicular to river

❏ Many farmers could have

riverfront property

❏ Great for water transport of

goods

❏ In North America - Quebec

Overview of Agricultural Revolutions

First Agricultural

Revolution (Neolithic

Revolution)

❏ ~10,000 BCE

❏ Domestication of

plants + animals

❏ Subsistence

farming

❏ Simple tools +

manual labor

Second Agricultural

Revolution

❏ Began in the 1700s

❏ Grew out of

advances of the

Industrial

Revolution

❏ Growing population

= need for higher

crop yields

Third Agricultural

Revolution (Green

Revolution)

❏ Began in the 1960s

❏ Agribusiness model

emerges

❏ Technology includes

GMOs, seed

hybridization,

pesticides +

herbicides

I. Early Hearths of Domestication

Agricultural hearths were established independently at various times and

locations. The first hearths were likely regions of high biodiversity on the

edge of forests.

Animal Domestication

❏ Raising and caring for animals

by humans for protection of

food

❏ Probably began with hunting

dogs

❏ Later, goats and sheep

Plant Domestication

❏ Began after animal

domestication

❏ 1st domesticated plants were

vegetative - parts of stems or

roots of existing plants

❏ Next - domestication of seeds

Multiple

hearths

often

developed

in different

regions at

the same

time.

Each region

has a unique

legacy based

on climate,

cultural

preferences

+ native

crops.

Diffusion of

some crops

when

farmers

discover

that crops

can thrive

outside of

their hearth.

II. Patterns of Diffusion

First Agricultural Revolution

❏ Nomadic hunter-gatherers to

permanent agricultural settlements

❏ Agricultural hearths become first

complex civilizations

❏ Civilizations lead to...

❏ Increased trade

❏ Large empires

❏ Conquest + expansion

❏ Improved agricultural techniques lead to...

❏ Decreased need for farmers

❏ New occupations = specialized work

II. Patterns of Diffusion

Increased trade and expansion led to diffusion of crops + animals.

Roman Empire

❏ Trade in wheat and other

agricultural products from

England to Africa + SW Asia

❏ Diffusion through

Mediterranean +

Trans-Saharan Trade routes

II. Patterns of Diffusion

Increased trade and expansion led to diffusion of crops + animals.

Silk Roads

❏ Trade in silk, rice, and other

goods (like porcelain)

❏ Silk Road was a trade route

connecting Rome with China

❏ Often traveled by horse and

camel

II. Patterns of Diffusion

Increased trade and expansion led to diffusion of crops + animals.

Columbian Exchange

❏ Global movement of plants,

animals, + diseases between

Afro-Eurasia and the Americas

❏ Began with European arrival in

the Americas

❏ Europeans BROUGHT plants +

animals to the Americas and

TOOK plants + animals back to

the East

East Africa Americas

COFFEE

New Guinea Americas

BANANAS

S America Afro-Eurasia

POTATOES

I. Advances of the Second Agricultural Revolution

Before the Second Agricultural Revolution... ❏ Vast majority of families were farmers ❏ Production of textiles, tools, other goods was done in the home by

hand

❏ Most people spent their entire lives within their village/community ❏ Communities were self-sufficient and disconnected from one another

Start of the Second Agricultural Revolution...

❏ 1700s (18th century) in Great Britain

❏ Second Ag. Revolution aligns with the Industrial Revolution

❏ Mechanized agricultural production drastically changed daily life and

led to increased crop yields and urbanization

II. Impact of the Second Agricultural Revolution

Mechanized agriculture reduces need for human labor

❏ Fewer, larger, more productive farms with fewer owners + laborers

❏ Many farmers + workers now unemployed and looking for work in urban

centers

Increase in more reliable crop yields improves quality of life

❏ Better diets

❏ Longer life expectancies

❏ Reliable food surplus leads to dramatic increase in population

Industrialization leads to changes in agricultural practices

❏ Mass production of goods, like textiles, creates greater demand for more

raw materials (high demand fuels colonization efforts)

❏ Cheaper prices for goods leads to rise in consumer culture

The Green Revolution

The Green Revolution, also known as the Third Agricultural Revolution,

started in the mid-20th century (1960s).

Advances in technology are based in biology (science) and include more

efficient farming practices:

❏ Seed Hybridization

❏ GMOs

❏ Fertilizers

❏ Pesticides + Herbicides

❏ Advanced machinery + irrigation systems

I. The Green Revolution

Seed Hybridization:

❏ The cross breeding of two seeds, each with a particular desirable trait,

to produce a single seed with both desirable traits

❏ Hybridization has been practiced for hundreds of years

❏ Most hybrids are grains - a focus on rice in the 1960s

long-grain Indonesian

rice

dense-grain Taiwanese

dwarf rice longer +denser rice

I. The Green Revolution

GMOs (Genetically Modified

Organisms):

❏ Biological engineering to change

the DNA of a seed

❏ New seed allows for increased yield

and resistance to drought, diseases,

+ pesticides

❏ Controversial

❏ Research surrounding long-term

consumption of GMOs not yet

available (although most biologists

agree there is little to no risk)

❏ Farmers who rely on GMO seeds are

required to purchase seeds every

season due to use of heritage seeds

I. The Green Revolution

Fertilizers:

❏ Add necessary nutrients to the soil

❏ Fertilizers benefit regions that have

been overused and become depleted

of nutrients AND makes it possible

to grow plants where it was

previously impossible.

❏ Fertilizer use has increased in

developing countries in Asia + the

Americas.

❏ Dependence on fertilizer to grow

crops is a negative consequence of

the introduction of agricultural

chemicals.

I. The Green Revolution

Pesticides + Herbicides

❏ Agricultural chemicals used for

destroying insects and diseases

harmful to cultivated plants and/or

animals

❏ Pesticide/Herbicide use has

increased in developing countries in

Asia + Africa

❏ Similar to fertilizers, farmers are

becoming dependent on expensive

pesticides and herbicides

I. The Green Revolution

Advanced machinery + irrigation:

❏ Tractors

❏ Tillers

❏ Broadcast seeders

❏ Grain carts

❏ Harvesters

II. Consequences of the Green Revolution

POSITIVE

Higher crop yields

❏ Prevents famine

❏ By the 2010s, 80% of the

developing world has an

adequate diet

❏ Wheat - 208% increase

Corn - 157% increase

Rice - 109% increase

Potatoes - 78% increase

Money for research and business

❏ High rates of investment in public +

private sectors for research and

development

Decrease in food prices

❏ Higher yields leads to falling food

prices

❏ Eases economic stress in developing

countries

Increased nutritional value

❏ GMOs, hybridization, and agricultural

chemicals support longer growing

periods and healthier plants

II. Consequences of the Green Revolution

NEGATIVE

Environmental damage

❏ Chemical runoff ruins

freshwater sources

❏ Commercial agriculture leads to

persistent abuse of arable land

❏ Draining of wetlands disrupts

ecosystems + leads to loss of

biodiversity

❏ Deforestation > Desertification

Unemployment

❏ Mechanized agricultural replaces need

for human labor

❏ Large scale unemployment in farming

Dependence on agricultural chemicals

❏ Farmers become dependent on

fertilizers, pesticides/herbicides to

grow viable crops

Population growth

❏ Food surplus leads to rapid population

growth, particularly in less developed

regions

The Green Revolution + Africa

The Green Revolution was unsuccessful in Africa.

1) Climate + soil diversity - much of Africa would have

needed to use expensive fertilizers in order to grow

successful crop yields.

2) Harsh conditions in some regions (insects, viral strains,

desert climates, etc) are challenging for technologies to

adapt to and for researchers to collect data.

3) Sub-Saharan Africa is lacking sufficient transportation

infrastructure = research + development requires even

more capital investment

4) Staple crops native to Africa (sorghum, millet, cassava,

yams, peanuts) were not always included in research. Hunger Map, 2021

Subsistence vs Commercial

Subsistence: farming to feed

yourself/your family

Commercial: farming for profit

Regions utilizing either subsistence or

commercial agriculture differ in terms

of:

❏ percentage of farmers in the labor

force

❏ the use of machinery

❏ farm size.

Family-Owned Tomato Farm

Commercial Tomato Farm

I. Subsistence vs Commercial Percentage of farmers in the labor

force...

DEVELOPING

Regions (LDCs)

❏ Most residents

are subsistence

farmers - many

families work

together to

maintain a farm

❏ LDCs - 44% of

the labor force

works in

agriculture

DEVELOPED

Regions (MDCs)

❏ Almost all farmers

are commercial

farmers

❏ MDCs - ~5% of

the labor force

works in

agriculture

❏ US - <2%

❏ Labor force is

concentrated in

manufacturing

work and service

industries.

I. Subsistence vs Commercial Use of machinery...

DEVELOPING Regions

(LDCs)

❏ More farmers per square

unit of arable land (high

agricultural density)

❏ Most of the farm work is

done by hand

❏ Hand tools

❏ Use of animals

❏ Yields feed fewer people

DEVELOPED Regions

(MDCs)

❏ Fewer farmers per square

unit of arable land (low

agricultural density)

❏ Most of the farm work is

done by machinery

❏ Expensive technology

❏ Higher yields

❏ Yields feed more people

I. Subsistence vs Commercial Farm size...

SUBSISTENCE

❏ SMALL

❏ Average farm size

in China - 2.51

acres

❏ Lack of revenue

means there is no

capital to invest in

machinery and

technology

COMMERCIAL

❏ BIG

❏ Average farm size

in the US - 418

acres

❏ Revenue comes

from high yields

❏ Profit and bank

loans are used to

invest in large,

expensive

machinery

I. Subsistence vs Commercial - Monocropping

Monocropping/monoculture - the farming of a

single cash crop on large plots of land

Large-scale commercial farms are replacing

small-scale commercial and subsistence

farms...

❏ Families/subsistence farmers in both

LDCs + MDCs cannot compete with

large-scale farming operations

❏ Globalization + the Green Revolution have

resulted in many agribusinesses buying

out smaller farms. Most small-scale

farmers are now working for an

agribusiness

❏ Suitcase farm - a farm in which the labor

is performed by farmers who live nearby

the farm rather than ON the farm.

Farmers commute to the farm.

Coffee Farm

Tea Plantation

II. Intensive vs Extensive

Agriculture is influenced by THREE economic factors - the costs of LABOR, LAND, + CAPITAL

Extensive Agriculture

❏ Extensive - fewer inputs

of capital + paid labor

compared to the land

area being used

❏ If land is plentiful and

costs little, the land is

used extensively

❏ Ex: shifting cultivation,

nomadic herding,

livestock ranching

Intensive Agriculture

❏ Intensive - greater

inputs of capital + paid

labor compared to the

land area being used

❏ If land is scarce or

expensive, the land is

used intensively

❏ market gardening,

intensive subsistence

agriculture

❏ In order to maximize

yield on a small amount

of land - farmers may

use double cropping or

intercropping

Reminder: Intensive OR extensive can describe

subsistence OR commercial agriculture!

Intercropping

Extensive Ag.

II. Intensive vs Extensive - Bid Rent Curve

The bid rent curve refers to the use of

concentric rings of different activities

surrounding a city (or market area) in order

to indicate the starting position for each type

of land use relative to the market.

❏ Each line = farmers’ willingness to pay

more in land rent closer to market than

farther away

❏ In a free market economy, the land will go

to the farmer who is willing to pay the

most

❏ Intersection of lines = end of one zone,

beginning of another

Bid rent theory explains the relationship between land costs and the location of intensive and extensive

farming practices in relation to the market.

Agribusiness

A single agribusiness would control

every step of this commodity chain:

❏ Planting + harvesting of the

raw material

❏ Transport to manufacturing

center

❏ Production

❏ Transport to market

❏ Sell to consumers

Agribusiness - a set of economic and political relationships that

organizes food production of seed to the marketing of the finished

product.

❏ Agribusiness is ALWAYS commercial agriculture

❏ Some crops are extensive (cattle ranching)

❏ Some crops are intensive (market gardening)

I. Agribusiness

Consolidation - taking a bunch of smaller things and making them into

one, larger thing.

❏ Developing countries are still predominantly family farms but

consolidation of these farms marks the beginning of the agribusiness

process.

❏ Plantations are being bought out by corporations and transformed

into both an intensive AND extensive process (using larger land

areas)

❏ Agribusinesses take advantage of economies of scale (greater

production results in saving in costs).

I. Agribusiness

Elements of agribusiness...

❏ Globalization - increased connections between distant places allows

for international corporations to be involved in all steps of the

production process

❏ Supply/Commodity Chains - a system of resources, producer

transportation, communication, information, and consumers

involved in different steps in developing a product.

❏ Vertical Integration - when a company owns several smaller

businesses involved in different steps in developing a product.

II. Complex Commodity Chains

Complex Commodity Chains are an indication of agribusiness.

One person can consume bananas from Ecuador, coffee from Brazil,

chocolate from Switzerland, and apples from Honduras thanks to...

❏ Advancements in biotechnology

❏ Mechanization

❏ Advancements in transportation

❏ Food preservation

III. Impact of Technology

Technological

improvements include...

❏ Fertilizers,

Herbicides, +

Pesticides

❏ GMOs and Complex

Seed Hybridization

❏ Cool Chains

(transportation

networks designed

to keep food cool)

Positive Consequences

❏ Increase in yield

❏ Increase in land’s

carrying capacity

❏ Decrease in food

prices

❏ Decrease in global

famine

Negative Consequences

❏ Environmental

damage

❏ Loss of biodiversity

❏ Threatened

ecosystems

❏ Uneven distribution

of resources

Von Thunen’s Model

❏ 1826: Johann von Thunen→ farm owner in

Germany

❏ The model illustrates a pattern of locations

of agricultural practices in relation to the

closest market.

❏ Decisions about where to locate an

agricultural practice are based on...

❏ Transportation cost (weight of

product)

❏ Cost of Land (bid rent theory)

❏ Whether the agricultural practice is

intensive or extensive

I. Von Thunen’s Model

Zone 1: Horticulture

❏ Market gardening/truck farming

❏ Dairying

❏ Perishable items→ need to get to market fast→ fruits, veggies

Zone 2: Forests

❏ 1826→ wood is the primary source of fuel and construction

❏ Heavy & difficult to transport

Zone 3: Crops like wheat & corn

❏ Valuable

❏ Did not perish as quickly as veggies & milk

❏ Not as hard to transport as wood

Zone 4: Grazing livestock

❏ Could walk when it was time to transport them

❏ Extensive agriculture→ larger than inner-ring farms

❏ Expensive to buy enough land for grazing

I. Von Thunen’s Model

Assumptions:

❏ Market is always in a central

location.

❏ There is only one market.

❏ Landscape is isotropic.

❏ Transportation technology is

stagnant.

❏ Agricultural practices are

consistent regardless of region.

Reality:

❏ Coastlines and other physical

features may result in multiple

markets or markets located in a

periphery location.

❏ Physical features like rivers,

lakes, + mountains disrupt the

rings.

❏ New technology like trains,

planes, and cool chains increase

the distance from market.

❏ Some regions specialize in certain

agricultural practices.Global Supply Chain

Food and other agricultural products are part of a global supply chain.

Transportation Technology Agribusiness Globalization INTERDEPENDENCE

I. Global Supply Chain

Interdependence - the dependence of two or more things (countries) on EACH OTHER

Regional interdependence is a result of...

Uneven Development

Luxury crops are grown in least developed

countries and sent to developing countries to

be manufactured.

Manufactured goods are sent to developed

countries to be sold.

Variations in Climate

Tropical regions export coffee, tea, bananas,

pineapples to temperate + subtropical regions.

Temperate + subtropical regions export grains like

wheat and rice to tropical regions.

II. Dependence on Export Commodities Some countries have become highly

dependent on one or more export

commodities.

Causes

❏ Monocropping practices

were established during

European

colonization/imperialism of

less developed regions

❏ Many luxury crops grow well

in tropical climates

❏ In order to maintain profit,

countries will allocate most

of the available farm land to

produce the highest value

export

Effect

❏ Farmers are unable to afford

the crops they’re harvesting

for export

❏ Decrease in supply of

necessary crops (not growing

crops needed for survival

because land is being used

for cash crops)

❏ Environmental damage,

drought, disease, etc. leads to

a low crop yield - entire

economy is affected

Cacao

Rubber

Palm Oil

Coffee

III. Global Food Distribution

Political Relationships

❏ Trade/economic relationships are dependent on peaceful political

relationships

❏ Global or regional conflict will disrupt trade networks, impacting every

economy

Global food distribution networks are affected by political

relationships, infrastructure, and patterns of world trade.

EU

OPEC

ASEAN

United Nations

WTO

III. Global Food Distribution

Infrastructure

❏ Transportation networks allow for quick and efficient transport of raw

materials + finished product.

❏ A lack of infrastructure inhibits your ability to participate in the global

trade network

❏ Developed countries have subsidized the development of transportation

networks for the export of goods

Global food distribution networks are affected by political

relationships, infrastructure, and patterns of world trade.

Application: Examine the map of air traffic

across the globe. Which regions experience

the least traffic? How can this observation

reflect a region’s infrastructure? How do

you think air traffic ties to activity in the

global trade network?

III. Global Food Distribution

Patterns of World Trade

❏ Today’s international economic relationships are rooted in colonialism +

neocolonialism

❏ More developed countries continue to exploit workers in developing

countries who lack labor laws to protect workers and guarantee fair wages

Global food distribution networks are affected by political

relationships, infrastructure, and patterns of world trade.

European Colonies, 1900 Human Development

Environmental Effects of Agriculture

Agricultural practices cause both short and long-term environmental damage, including...

Pollution:

❏ agricultural technology that runs on petroleum/gas emit CO2 emissions

❏ food waste and single-use plastic packaging contributes to land

pollution

❏ use of pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers can lead to water pollution

of nearby freshwater sources

Land cover change:

❏ clearing of forests + vegetation, terracing, and monocropping

permanently alter the landscape

❏ this land cover change disrupts ecosystems and alters the land’s ability

to support wild plants and animals

I. Environmental Effects of Agriculture

Agricultural practices cause both short and long-term environmental damage, including...

Desertification:

❏ deforestation and overgrazing destroys complex root systems that act as

an anchor for topsoil

❏ without an anchor, the exposed topsoil can be washed or blown away,

leading to desertification

Soil salinization:

❏ excessive irrigation results an increase in salts deposited in topsoil

(even freshwater has some salt content - after irrigation, water

evaporates from the topsoil, leaving salt behind)

❏ salinity leads to reduced soil fertility + toxicity in crops

I. Environmental Effects of Agriculture

Conservation efforts aim to reverse and/or reduce environmental damage resulting from agricultural

practices. Conservation efforts are implemented at various scales.

Global Conservation

❏ UN Sustainable

Development Goals -

affordable + clean energy,

protection of plant +

animal life, climate action

❏ UN Climate Change

Conference, UK 2021

Global Regional Conservation

❏ Amazon Conservation

Association

❏ The Sahara Conservation

Fund

❏ Water Aid

❏ Wildlife Conservation

Society

❏ The Ocean Cleanup

National Conservation

❏ US Fish + Wildlife Service

❏ National Park Foundation

❏ BirdLife Australia

❏ Wildlife Research and

Conservation Trust

❏ Pro Natura

❏ Nature Conservancy of

Canada

Local Conservation

❏ Georgia State Parks

❏ Georgia Conservancy

❏ Georgia Department of

Natural Resources

❏ Southeast Conservation

Corps

❏ Sawnee Mountain

Preserve

II. Agricultural Practices Alter the Landscape

Agricultural practices can alter the landscape in permanent ways...

Slash + burn is a specific method of clearing forests and vegetation for the purpose of

agricultural practices. Trees are cleared and then a controlled fire is set. In this

instance, the lumber will not be used for profit. Additionally, the burning of the

vegetation results in ash that deposits nitrogen in the topsoil - providing valuable

nutrients for crops.

Shifting Cultivation is an agricultural practice that relies on slash + burn methods in

order to clear land of natural vegetation. Once land is cleared, the land is used for

farming, for consecutive seasons, until the topsoil has lost its ability to support crops.

This damage alters the landscapes ability to support any kind of vegetation and

ultimately decreases the land’s carrying capacity.

Deforestation refers to the mass clearing of trees. Trees take a very long time to grow

and mature. Therefore, the clearing of forests alters the landscape for a long period of

time. Deforestation is a common practice in order to make profit off of lumber and

also clear land to be used for other agricultural practices.

II. Agricultural Practices Alter the Landscape

Agricultural practices can alter the landscape in permanent ways...

Wetlands can be a source of freshwater. Therefore,

irrigation can include draining of those wetlands. Too

much draining will result in the destruction of the

ecosystem that relies on the water supply in the

wetlands.

Irrigation is a method of bringing fresh water to an agricultural site from a

distant location. Inefficient or faulty irrigation systems cause enormous

waste of freshwater. Additionally, irrigation of too much freshwater can

cause sources like lakes and rivers to dry up permanently, decreasing the

freshwater supply for both humans and animals.

III. Societal Effects of Agriculture

Evolving agricultural practices effects society by changing diets, impacting the role of women

in agriculture, and altering economic activity.

Changing Diets

❏ The diet of the average

consumer changes as food

production changes

❏ New agricultural methods lead

to new preferences and trends

amongst consumers

❏ Ex: Non-GMO, Organic, Fair

Trade, Free Range, etc.

Role of Women

❏ Women are often excluded from

revolutions and technological

advancement

❏ Men in both MDCs and LDCs were

the first to have access to training

regarding new agricultural

techniques

❏ Although women provide the

majority of labor on farms in LDCs,

men still control agricultural

practices as land owners

Economic Purpose

❏ Trade patterns and production

are impacted by both supply

and demand.

❏ Food supply is affected by

changing technologies,

leading to changes in what

food is available to consumers.

❏ Additionally, food surpluses

cause decrease in prices,

altering which crops bring in

the most profit.

Agricultural Innovation

The Innovation The Benefit The Debate

Biotechnology refers to

methods of farming based on

the biology of plants and

animals. Examples include:

❏ Pesticides

❏ Herbicides

❏ Fertilizers

❏ Seed Hybridization

❏ GMOs

Biotechnology allows farmers

to harvest higher yields and

grow crops with higher

nutritional value. The

increase in yield combats

global malnourishment.

Consumers are concerned

about the long-term

consequences of consuming

foods made of crops that

came in contact with

agricultural chemicals.

Additionally, agricultural

chemicals have the potential

to pollute freshwater sources

located near farms.

I. Agricultural Innovation

The Innovation The Benefit The Debate

Genetically Modified

Organisms are plants or

animals with DNA that has

been intentionally modified.

Examples of GMO crops

grown in the US include:

❏ Corn

❏ Canola

❏ Soybeans

❏ Sugarbeets

❏ Zucchini

GMO seeds lead to higher

crop yields and crops with

higher nutritional value. The

increase in yield combats

global malnourishment.

Consumers are concerned

about the long-term

consequences of consuming

GMO foods. Although the

majority of scientists find

them safe for humans.

Additionally, many farmers

are unable to purchase GMO

seeds year after year, causing

debate over the accessibility

of these seeds.

I. Agricultural Innovation

The Innovation The Benefit The Debate

Aquaculture refers to the

practice of raising and

harvesting fish and other

forms of food that live in

water. The growth of the

aquaculture movement is

referred to as the Blue

Revolution.

Aquaculture has dramatically

increased the availability of

fish and fish protein.

The Blue Revolution is

responsible for 50% of the

world’s seafood.

Fish farms are criticized

because of their

❏ Use of open-pen systems

and high fish density that

contribute to the spread of

disease and parasites

❏ Competition with

traditional fishing

❏ Possible exploitation of

labor

❏ And dangerously high

levels of organic matter

deposited in the ocean as a

result of fish waste

I. Agricultural Innovation

The Innovation The Benefit The Debate

Hydroponics refers to an

agricultural method wherein

crops are grown in water

rather than soil.

Aquaponics, a variation of

hydroponics, uses waste from

live fish to provide nutrients

for the water in which crops

are grown.

Hydroponics and aquaponics

farmers have more control

over the growing process.

Advantages include:

❏ An extended growing

season

❏ Less water consumption

❏ Fewer pests

❏ Indoor growth is possible

❏ Increased yield

Hydroponic and aquaponic

systems are:

❏ very expensive to set up

❏ vulnerable to power

outages

❏ require constant

monitoring +

maintenance

❏ vulnerable to waterborne

diseases

II. Movements Impact Production + Consumption

Urban Farming - growing or producing food in a city

or heavily populated town in order to decrease the

prevalence of food deserts and/or food insecurity.

Community-Supported Agriculture (CSAs) -

members of a community buy “shares” of a farm’s

harvest in advance and then receive a portion of the

crops as they’re harvested.

Organic Farming - an agricultural practice that

prioritizes environmental sustainability and prohibits

the use of pesticides, antibiotics, fertilizers, GMOs,

and growth hormones.

II. Movements Impact Production + Consumption

Value-Added Specialty Crops - a manufacturing

process that increases the value of agricultural raw

materials. The final product may appeal to a

movement like organic or non-GMO foods, or might

create something new or “artisanal” like cheese,

wine, etc.

Fair Trade - a movement designed to provide more

money for small farmers in less developed countries.

Fair Trade products are branded, and slightly more

expensive, but most consumers are willing to pay the

cost because they understand the profit benefits

farmers rather than corporations.

Local Food Movement - Eating local supports local,

small-scale, and often family-owned farms. Crops

transported from a local farm to a local market use

significantly less fossil fuel compared to large

commercial farms.

III. Challenges of Feeding a Global Population

Food Deserts

Urban areas often lack choices for consumers to buy

affordable, good-quality, fresh food. Grocery stores

choose not to locate within large cities due to the cost

of renting space. Many individuals and families are

forced to purchase their food supply from corner

stores or fast food restaurants, both of which lack

good-quality, fresh food.

Food Insecurity

Food insecurity refers to the lack of certainty

regarding where your next meal will come from.

Food insecurity impacts impoverished individuals all

over the world, regardless of how developed their

home country may be. Currently, 1⁄8 of the global

population experiences food insecurity.

ACCESS

VS

Adverse Weather

Natural disasters such as hurricanes,

tsunamis, earthquakes, and mudslides

not only destroy communities but they

also destroy significant amounts of land

used for agricultural production.

Adverse weather may also include severe

drought and unusually hot/cold

temperatures - both of which can impact

a season’s yield.

III. Challenges of Feeding a Global Population

Loss of Arable Land

Country’s experience urbanization and

suburbanization as they develop over

time. Urbanization and suburbanization

refer to the growth and development of

urban and suburban communities.

As urban areas and suburbs continue to

grow, potentially arable land is lost to

the building of residential and market

areas.

Political Issues

Internal and external conflict can disrupt

the flow of imports and exports,

including agricultural productions.

Wars and conflicts also disrupt

transportation networks, or the further

construction of transportation networks

that are vital to the efficient distribution

of food supply throughout a country.

DISTRIBUTION

Women in Agriculture - MDCs

In more developed countries...

❏ Women have less involvement with field

work due to modernized farming and

mechanization

❏ In large-scale agribusiness, women are

able to contribute at all levels from crop

and livestock management to

distribution + research.

❏ However, few women are owners of

agribusinesses.

❏ Women have access to education and

training that allows them to participate

in other economic sectors.

(manufacturing, services, research, tech,

etc.)

Women in Agriculture - LDCs

In less developed countries...

❏ Women make up ~70% of the

agricultural labor force in

subsistence-heavy areas.

❏ Women manage subsistence farms

while men migrate to urban areas for

work.

❏ Women provide labor but are unable

to own property in many regions.

❏ Lack of access to education and

training excludes women from

learning about new agricultural technologies