philosophy final 2

Late Modern Philosophy:

1. G.W.F. Hegel:

   • Influential German philosopher, after Kant.

   • Phenomenology of Spirit (Mind): Hegel’s work focused on how history and thought evolve as a function of 'Absolute Reason.'

   • Introduced the Dialectic: A process of development through thesis, antithesis, and synthesis, representing conflict driving progress.

   • Key idea of lordship & bondage: Identity and power dynamics shift through dependency, leading to higher social relations.

2. Arthur Schopenhauer:

   • Emphasized the will as the essence of existence, influencing his form of nihilism.

   • The World as Will and Representation: Argued that the universe doesn’t culminate in God and that meaning is individually created.

3. Søren Kierkegaard:

   • Regarded as the father of Existentialism.

   • Subjective Truth: Truth is found within the individual, not through objective reasoning (as Hegel proposed).

   • Leap of Faith: He encouraged an inward, personal confrontation with existential dilemmas, especially in works like Either/Or and Fear and Trembling.

4. Jeremy Bentham:

   • Promoted Utilitarianism with the Greatest Happiness Principle, advocating actions that maximize societal well-being.

   • Stressed the importance of empirical reasoning and the role of utility in moral decisions.

5. John Stuart Mill:

   • Furthered Utilitarianism with an emphasis on individual liberties, particularly in works like The Subjection of Women.

   • His Utilitarianism stressed a cost-benefit approach to ethics, favoring practical, rule-based decisions over abstract moral intuitions.

6. Friedrich Nietzsche:

   • Renounced traditional morality and God, embracing perspectivism.

   • Advocated for the Übermensch (Superman): individuals who create their own values and redefine truth and meaning.

   • His concept of the Death of God challenged the role of religion in modern life.

Contemporary Philosophy:

1. Charles S. Peirce:

   • Initiator of Pragmatism, later called Pragmaticism.

   • Proposed that beliefs form through tenacity, reliance on authority, or scientific method, with the scientific method being the most reliable for truth.

2. William James:

   • A major figure in Pragmatism.

   • Argued that truth is what works and emphasized the importance of living, forced, and momentous decisions in life, particularly regarding religious belief.

3. Ludwig Wittgenstein:

   • Early: Advocated for a logical positivist view where language and thought are tied.

   • Later: Shifted to a language-games theory in Philosophical Investigations, where language is a form of life, influencing modern linguistic philosophy.

4. Edmund Husserl:

   • Father of Phenomenology.

   • Focused on how consciousness experiences the world, suggesting that we should "bracket" assumptions and see the world for what it is, free from preconceived notions.

5. Martin Heidegger:

   • Influenced by Husserl, Heidegger's philosophy focused on Being (Dasein).

   • He discussed the fundamental question of metaphysics and argued that modern individuals are "fallen" and disconnected from authentic existence.

6. Jean-Paul Sartre:

   • Existentialist philosopher who argued that existence precedes essence: we first exist, then define our essence through actions.

   • Emphasized authenticity and the freedom of choice in confronting life’s meaning.

7. Nelson Goodman:

   • Used unconventional language like ‘grue’ and ‘bleen’ to argue against the possibility of a formal inductive method, emphasizing inductive skepticism.

8. John Rawls:

   • Proposed a theory of justice that focused on fairness in society.

   • Veil of Ignorance: A method for designing a fair society by imagining one’s position without knowing personal circumstances (e.g., social class, race).

Key Philosophical Concepts and Movements:

• Utilitarianism: Advocated by Bentham and Mill, it emphasizes maximizing overall happiness, often through a cost/benefit analysis.

• Existentialism: As discussed by Kierkegaard and Sartre, this philosophy focuses on individual freedom, the anxiety of existence, and the need for authentic living.

• Pragmatism: As developed by Peirce and James, this theory focuses on the practical outcomes of beliefs and ideas.

• Phenomenology: Husserl and Heidegger’s ideas that focus on understanding consciousness and existence through experience and perception.

Important Figures to Focus On:

• Hegel: Dialectic, history, and Absolute Reason.

• Schopenhauer: The will and nihilism.

• Kierkegaard: Subjective truth and the leap of faith.

• Nietzsche: The death of God, perspectivism, and the Übermensch.

• Peirce and James: Pragmatism and truth as what works.

• Wittgenstein: Language-games and meaning.

• Sartre: Existence precedes essence and authenticity.

• Rawls: Justice as fairness and the veil of ignorance.