history mid-term exam notes (gr8)

Chapter 1.1: Extra Notes

• In 1830, all of British North America was under British government political control, while the territories were governed by the British H.B.C.

Colonies and Industries:

• Newfoundland: Fishing

• P.E.I.: Agriculture

• Nova Scotia: Shipping & coal mining

• New Brunswick: Forestry & shipbuilding

Industries were booming in the Atlantic colonies.

• Joseph Salter was a successful businessman/politician who owned a shipbuilding company and was the first mayor of Moncton (New Brunswick).

• In the mid-1800s, ports in the Atlantic colonies were busy with business activity.

• P.E.I. farmers had problems owning land and often got removed by landlords.

• Fishing families in Newfoundland were often in debt to wealthy merchants.

• Goods produced in Atlantic colonies went to Britain and the United States (trade patterns were changing).

• Reciprocity Treaty was created, allowing free trade between countries without taxes on agricultural products and natural resources (between B.N.A. and the U.S.).

• After the American Civil War, the U.S. ended the Reciprocity Treaty and began heavily taxing goods from B.N.A.

• Unless they came from wealthy families, most children in the 1800s had to help their families make a living (child labor with low wages). Britain had laws to protect children from dangerous jobs, but B.N.A. did not.

• First Nations signed peace/friendship treaties with the British government (guaranteed rights to hunt/fish).

• As Europeans and Americans immigrated, the government did little to protect First Nations territory.

• First Nations were rarely offered jobs, so they used their skills to make syrup, berries, etc., to sell.

Chapter 1.2: Extra Notes

• English businessmen dominated the economies of Montreal and Quebec City (many working-class earned low wages).

• The Papineau’s were seigneurs that owned a large amount of land on which they sold/rented land to thousands of Canadiens (sawmills were the main business).

• Many Canadiens could not afford to pay rent, so they had to give up or sell back their plots.

• Farmland was divided among generations, becoming smaller and smaller and eventually unable to support families.

• Men would often get jobs in the lumber industry but for very low wages, and many had to borrow money (some couldn’t pay back debt).

• Many were forced to give up their farms and move to cities (some even tried to find work in the U.S.).

• The Act of Union joined Upper and Lower Canada into one colony.

• Catholic bishops and priests traveled and spoke publicly about the importance of the French language, helping to gain political influence.

• The church took advantage of new industries and invested its wealth into railways, mining, and lumber.

• There was a growing French-speaking middle class, which embraced Canadian literature and arts.

Chapter 1.3: Extra Notes

• Tens of thousands of British immigrants arrived in Canada West. Settlement went from isolated farmland to a network of farms and cities.

• Transportation of goods was done by ships, benefiting people near ports. However, land transportation was cheaper far from the Great Lakes (making it hard for farmers to get crops to the markets). This changed with the boom in railways.

• Towns like Toronto became centers of commerce for remote settlements. Farmers relied on nearby towns for services, leading to growth in small industries (e.g., farmers sold grain to mills, which was turned into flour and sold).

• Railways opened new opportunities for immigrants (e.g., Blackburn family operated/established the first cab service in Toronto).

• Irish people became the largest ethnic group in Canada West. Railroad construction and local industries provided jobs (social tension arose because of competition with Canadians).

• The Orange Order (Irish Protestant group) was influential in politics, policing, and firefighting.

• The Fugitive Slave Act caused more to escape to B.N.A. (Black settlements formed). Schools were funded by Mary Ann Shadd (activist supported by Black and white communities).

• Harriet Tubman made 19 missions to help slaves escape.

• Growth of railroads and agricultural demand led to more farming (by the 1860s). Factories were producing farming materials, and farmers took loans to buy this equipment (e.g., Massey Company - Toronto’s largest farm machine factory).

• Some First Nations adopted European farming styles (e.g., Mississauga of the Credit River). However, there was conflict over land ownership as the government refused to recognize land rights.

• Their land was auctioned, and railways pushed further north, causing settlers to take over more land.

• The government forced bands to sign away their assigned territories. Some First Nations tried to buy land back, but the government wouldn’t allow it.

• Catherine Sutton and others protested this unfair treatment (British people also protested).

Chapter 1.4: Extra Notes

• During the first half of the 1800s, First Nations in the Northwest outnumbered Europeans.

• The Red River Settlement was a mix of cultures, and many Métis families sent children to European settler schools for education while also learning culture/skills.

• People moved to Rupert’s Land for new opportunities.

• Gold was discovered in New Caledonia (renamed British Columbia). Non-Aboriginal populations grew drastically, with people coming to look/mine for gold from around the world.

• Miners intruded on First Nations territories, disrupting their lives and polluting fishing waters (e.g., Fraser Canyon War, 1858).

• James Douglas instructed the government to make/secure reserves to protect First Nations’ land.

• Vancouver Island became home to a diverse group of people during the gold rush, including British, French, Black, Jewish, and Chinese settlers.

• By the 1860s, the gold rush was over, and people moved into industries like lumber.

• These industries struggled when the U.S. ended the Reciprocity Treaty and began taxing goods heavily.

• To create less expensive products, business owners sought cheaper labor.

• Many white people believed Chinese workers were taking jobs from them.

Chapter 2.1: Extra Notes

• The Threat of American Takeover: Americans wanted to expand into B.N.A. colonies (annexation) because Britain stayed neutral in the American Civil War and Manifest Destiny. Confederation could help Canadians by offering protection (larger army) and stronger borders.

• The need for rail links: Individual colonies couldn’t afford their railway systems alone. Confederation would connect the railway across all colonies, making it easier to pay for as a group.

• Fenian Raids: Irish groups wanted to invade B.N.A. to free Ireland from British control. Confederation could protect against these raids.

• Trouble with trade: Trading between colonies was expensive due to high taxes imposed by Britain. Some colonies wanted their own trade laws/regulations, but Confederation could create a common economic system.

• Changing British attitudes: Some groups in Britain believed B.N.A. colonies were a financial burden. Uniting the colonies would help them fend for themselves and become stronger as one.

Chapter 2.2: Extra Notes

• The Great Coalition: An alliance in 1864 between Macdonald, Brown, and Cartier to work toward a federal system for the Canadas (and potentially other regions in British North America).

• The Atlantic colonies had a resource-based economy and benefited from trade with Britain and the U.S. Confederation could protect and enhance these trade relationships.

• The lieutenant governor of New Brunswick expressed concerns that a union with Canada would destroy the Maritimes’ power and independence, but supporters of Confederation believed it would be beneficial.

• Canada East and the Atlantic colonies wanted the Hudson’s Bay Company’s land rights preserved. There were concerns about the company selling its land to the U.S.

• British Columbia considered Confederation due to rising debt and isolation. Some preferred annexation by the U.S. over joining Confederation.

Chapter 2.3: Extra Notes

• Charlottetown Conference: Representatives from Nova Scotia, P.E.I., and New Brunswick initially planned to discuss a maritime union. The Province of Canada joined, shifting the focus to Confederation. Discussions included the idea of a federal union, and informal meetings between leaders and their wives.

• Quebec Conference: Representatives from Canada East, Canada West, and the Atlantic colonies discussed the needs of the colonies:

• Maritimes: Wanted new trade partners and better access.

• P.E.I.: Sought a ferry system for transporting goods.

• Canada East: Wanted rights for religion, education, and language.

• Canada West: Desired a strong central government.

• John A. Macdonald drafted most resolutions. A federal government would consist of a lower house (based on population) and an upper house (Senate).

• P.E.I. and Newfoundland were not yet convinced to join Confederation.

• London Conference: The “Fathers of Confederation” traveled to England to write the British North America Act, creating a partially self-governing union under British Parliament.

• Dominion of Canada: Queen Victoria declared Ontario and Quebec as part of Canada, appointing John A. Macdonald as the first Prime Minister. Protests arose in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick over a perceived lack of voting rights.

Chapter 3.1: Extra Notes

• Sale of Rupert’s Land: Controlled by the Hudson’s Bay Company, this land covered about one-third of Canada. The company wanted to sell the land to Britain, but First Nations and Métis worried their land rights would not be recognized.

• The Métis formed the Métis National Committee in 1869, with Louis Riel as secretary. They aimed to protect their rights against government surveyors mapping the land without permission.

• Riel and the Métis resisted William McDougall, appointed as lieutenant governor, from entering the Northwest. The Métis also occupied a fort to delay the transfer of Rupert’s Land.

• They established a provisional government, including French-speaking Métis and English Protestant settlers, to negotiate terms for Manitoba to join Canada.

• The Canadian government tried to overthrow this government, leading to the controversial execution of Thomas Scott, further escalating tensions.

• Manitoba Act: Created a province to balance Métis and settler demands, but settlers eventually dominated the area.

• The Red River Expedition, led by Colonel Garnet Wolseley, ended with Riel fleeing to the U.S. Settlers were given land scrip (certificates), which caused the Métis to lose their original land.

Chapter 3.2: Extra Notes

• One of the conditions of British Columbia joining Confederation was that Canada would build a transcontinental railway to link the province to the rest of the country.

• Macdonald’s government was losing popularity, so he sought campaign donations.

• Sir Hugh Allan, a railway builder, donated to Macdonald’s campaign, helping him win re-election. However, a scandal broke out when it was revealed Allan’s company was promised the contract to build the railway in return for campaign contributions (Pacific Scandal).

• Macdonald resigned, and Alexander Mackenzie became Prime Minister after winning the election.

• Under Mackenzie’s government, Canada’s economy suffered, and the railway could not be built as quickly as promised.

• Macdonald was re-elected later, as many believed in his vision for a National Policy:

1. Complete the railway.

2. Encourage immigration.

3. Implement protective tariffs.

• Canadian Pacific Railway:

• A new company was needed to build the railway (Canadian Pacific Railway Company).

• John Macoun discovered fertile land that influenced the railway’s route further south than originally planned.

• A worker shortage led to recruiting Chinese workers, who took on the most dangerous tasks (e.g., blasting through the Rocky Mountains). They were paid very low wages ($1/day) and lived in harsh conditions.

• The Last Spike of the railway was driven by Sir Donald Smith. The iconic photo excluded Chinese workers, despite their critical role.

Chapter 3.3: Extra Notes

• Manufacturing industries in Ontario and Quebec grew, shipping millions of gallons of products to Quebec, the Maritimes, the U.S., and Brazil.

• The Maritimes also had industrial growth, importing raw materials like cotton.

• By the 1880s, manufacturing in the Maritimes declined due to the high costs of transporting goods.

• Overproduction led to competition, causing many manufacturers in Ontario and Quebec to close or sell their companies. Some moved to Western Canada or the U.S.

• Tensions between Protestants and Catholics persisted. Protestants in Ontario wanted closer ties with Britain, while Quebec Catholics sought to protect their culture and religion.

• Jubilee Riots (1875):

• Catholics celebrated a Jubilee in Toronto, but some opposed it.

• The Orange Order asked for Jubilee events to be canceled, promising peaceful protests. However, riots erupted, with violence during parades (stones thrown, shots fired, and a six-hour fight).

• The Guibord Affair:

•Joseph Guibord, a Catholic, was denied a Catholic burial due to his ties to a liberal organization. After a six-year court battle, Canada’s highest court ruled that Guibord had the right to burial in a Catholic cemetery. This angered the church, as it suggested Canadian courts had authority over the church.

• When the burial took place, angry mobs protested. Bishop Bourget declared the burial site no longer holy.

Chapter 3.4: Extra Notes

• Since Confederation, Canada rapidly expanded, leading to increased land disputes (with laws favoring settlers).

• Northern Treaty (Buffalo Treaty):

• Signed by 10 First Nations, aiming to increase buffalo populations and recognize First Nations’ rights.

• First Nations and Métis practiced sustainable hunting, but settlers caused buffalo populations to decline.

• Numbered Treaties:

• A series of 11 treaties between the government and First Nations, where land was ceded in exchange for reserves, hunting/fishing rights, and tools. However, what was delivered was not what First Nations expected.

• Indian Act:

• Controlled First Nations through regulations, excluding Métis and Inuit.

• Residential Schools:

• Aimed to assimilate and “educate” First Nations children. They were taken from families and forced to forget their culture.

• Dominion Lands Act:

• Provided settlers with Northwest land for farming, which further displaced Indigenous peoples.

• Northwest Mounted Police:

• Created to enforce order and ensure compliance with treaties.

• Whiskey trade:

• Whiskey, illegal in Canada, was traded to First Nations by American traders.

• Cypress Hills Massacre (1873):

• American traders attacked an Assiniboine camp over a missing horse, resulting in 22 deaths, highlighting the need for law enforcement.

• Terry Fox (Métis intermediary):

• Worked with Mounted Police to build trust between First Nations and settlers.