Anatomy & Physiology I Exam Review

Unit 1

• Anatomical Position: Describe the anatomical position and define the following terms:
  • Superior: Towards the head.
  • Inferior: Away from the head.
  • Anterior: Towards the front.
  • Posterior: Towards the back.
  • Ventral: Towards the front (same as anterior).
  • Dorsal: Towards the back (same as posterior).
  • Medial: Towards the midline of the body.
  • Lateral: Away from the midline of the body.
  • Deep: Away from the surface of the body.
  • Superficial: Towards the surface of the body.
  • Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment to the body.
  • Distal: Farther from the point of attachment to the body.
  • Cephalic: Relating to the head.
  • Caudal: Relating to the tail or inferior end.
• Major Body Systems and Primary Functions: Identify the major body systems and their primary functions.
• Planes of Reference: Identify the planes of reference including:
  • Coronal (Frontal): Divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.
  • Sagittal: Divides the body into left and right parts.
  • Transverse: Divides the body into superior and inferior parts.
• Major Organic Molecules: Know the 4 major organic molecules, including function and monomer/polymer units.
  • Carbohydrates: Provide energy; Monomer - monosaccharides, Polymer - polysaccharides.
  • Lipids: Store energy, insulate, and protect; Monomer - fatty acids and glycerol, Polymer - triglycerides.
  • Proteins: Structural support, enzymes, transport, defense; Monomer - amino acids, Polymer - polypeptides.
  • Nucleic Acids: Store and transmit genetic information; Monomer - nucleotides, Polymer - DNA and RNA.
• Passive Transport: Define and give examples of passive transport.
  • Facilitated Diffusion: Movement of molecules across a membrane with the help of transport proteins.
  • Diffusion: Movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
  • Osmosis: Movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration.
• Major Cell Organelles: Know the major cell organelles and their function.
  • Nucleus: Control center of the cell, contains DNA.
  • Mitochondria: Produces ATP (energy) through cellular respiration.
  • Ribosomes: Synthesizes proteins.
  • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Synthesizes and transports proteins and lipids. (Rough ER has ribosomes, Smooth ER does not.)
  • Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids.
  • Lysosomes: Breaks down waste and cellular debris.
• Major Types of Tissue: Identify and describe the structure, function, and location of the 4 major types of tissue with generalized characteristics of each.
  • Epithelial Tissue: Covers surfaces for protection, secretion, and absorption. Located in the lining of organs and glands.
  • Connective Tissue: Supports, connects, and separates different types of tissues and organs in the body. Found in bones, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and blood.
  • Muscle Tissue: Contracts to produce movement. Located in skeletal muscles, heart, and walls of internal organs.
  • Nervous Tissue: Transmits electrical signals for communication. Located in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
• Skin Structure and Function: Describe structure and function of skin, including the strata of epidermis & layers of dermis.
  • Epidermis: Outer layer composed of stratified squamous epithelium. Strata include stratum corneum, stratum lucidum (only in thick skin), stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale.
  • Dermis: Inner layer composed of connective tissue. Layers include papillary layer and reticular layer.
• Hair & Nails: Know the structure and functions of the hair & nails in the integumentary system.
  • Hair: Provides protection, insulation, and sensation.
  • Nails: Protect and support the tips of fingers and toes.

Unit 2

• Skeletal System: Identify the functions and the components of the skeletal system including the bones and landmarks of the Axial and Appendicular skeleton.
  • Axial Skeleton: Skull, vertebral column, and rib cage.
  • Appendicular Skeleton: Bones of the limbs, pectoral girdle, and pelvic girdle.
• Osteon: Know the structure and function of the osteon.
  • Osteon: Basic structural unit of compact bone, consisting of a central canal surrounded by concentric lamellae.
• Bone Cells: Describe the structure and function of the types of bone cells.
  • Osteoblasts: Bone-forming cells.
  • Osteocytes: Mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix.
  • Osteoclasts: Bone-resorbing cells.
• Long Bone Anatomy: Know the anatomy and terms of a long bone.
  • Diaphysis: Shaft of the long bone.
  • Epiphysis: Ends of the long bone.
  • Metaphysis: Region between diaphysis and epiphysis, contains growth plate.
  • Articular Cartilage: Covers the articular surfaces of the epiphysis.
  • Medullary Cavity: Cavity within the diaphysis containing bone marrow.
• Endochondral Bone Formation: Know the processes of endochondral bone formation.
  • Endochondral Bone Formation: Process by which bone forms from a cartilage model.

Articulations

• Joint Classifications: Know the joint classifications terms as well as the 6 types of synovial joints.
  • Fibrous: Immovable or slightly movable joints connected by fibrous connective tissue.
  • Cartilaginous: Slightly movable or immovable joints connected by cartilage.
  • Synovial: Freely movable joints with a joint cavity containing synovial fluid.
  • Types of Synovial Joints:
    • Ball-and-Socket: Shoulder and hip.
    • Hinge: Elbow and knee.
    • Pivot: Radioulnar joint.
    • Condylar: Wrist.
    • Saddle: Thumb.
    • Plane (Gliding): Intercarpal and intertarsal joints.
• Synovial Joint Components: Identify and functionally describe the components of a synovial joint understanding the relationship between the mobility and stability of a joint.
  • Articular Cartilage: Reduces friction and absorbs shock.
  • Synovial Membrane: Produces synovial fluid.
  • Synovial Fluid: Lubricates and nourishes the joint.
  • Joint Capsule: Encloses the joint and provides stability.
• Movements at Major Joints: Be able to describe and identify the different movements produced at major joints including the neck, shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee, and ankle. Include the named ligaments of the joints.

Unit 3

• Muscle Anatomy: Diagram and describe the gross anatomy of a muscle including the whole muscle, muscle fascicle, muscle fiber (cell), and the CT layers - epimysium, perimysium, endomysium.
  • Whole Muscle: Consists of many fascicles.
  • Muscle Fascicle: Bundle of muscle fibers.
  • Muscle Fiber (Cell): Individual muscle cell.
  • Epimysium: Connective tissue covering the whole muscle.
  • Perimysium: Connective tissue surrounding each fascicle.
  • Endomysium: Connective tissue surrounding each muscle fiber.
• Muscle Fiber: Diagram and functionally describe the muscle fiber including the sarcomere.
  • Sarcomere: Basic contractile unit of a muscle fiber, containing actin and myosin filaments.
• Muscle Twitch: Define and describe the muscle twitch (latent, contraction, relaxation), and the all-or-none principle.
  • Latent Period: Time between stimulus and start of contraction.
  • Contraction Phase: Time during which muscle tension increases.
  • Relaxation Phase: Time during which muscle tension decreases.
• All-or-None Principle: All-or-none principle states that the strength by which a nerve or muscle fiber responds to a stimulus is independent of the strength of the stimulus. If the stimulus exceeds the threshold potential, the nerve or muscle fiber will give a complete response; otherwise, there is no response.
• Functions of Muscles: Identify the functions of muscles that belong to the body.

Unit 4

• Central & Peripheral Nervous Systems: Describe the divisions of the Central & Peripheral Nervous Systems, noting the functions of each division.
  • Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.
  • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
• Brain Areas: Describe the structure and functions of all areas of the cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, brainstem and spinal cord.
  • Cerebrum: Thinking, memory, and voluntary movements.
  • Cerebellum: Coordination and balance.
  • Diencephalon: Thalamus and hypothalamus.
  • Brainstem: Controls basic life functions.
  • Spinal Cord: Transmits signals between brain and body.
• Reflexes: Know the types/categories of reflexes.
  • Reflexes: Rapid, involuntary responses to stimuli.
• Cranial Nerves and Cervical/Brachial Plexi: Identify functions of each of 12 cranial nerves and of the nerves from the cervical and brachial plexi.
  • Cranial Nerves: I-XII (Olfactory, Optic, Oculomotor, Trochlear, Trigeminal, Abducens, Facial, Vestibulocochlear, Glossopharyngeal, Vagus, Accessory, Hypoglossal).
  • Cervical Plexus: Supplies the back of the head, neck, and shoulders.
  • Brachial Plexus: Supplies the upper limb.

Unit 5

• Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Divisions: Know the differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous divisions of the ANS by their actions.
  • Sympathetic Nervous System: "Fight or flight" response.
  • Parasympathetic Nervous System: "Rest and digest" response.
• Types of Receptors for General Senses: Know the types of receptors for the general senses and the type of stimuli that each detects.
  • Mechanoreceptors: Detect mechanical stimuli (touch, pressure, vibration).
  • Thermoreceptors: Detect temperature changes.
  • Nociceptors: Detect pain.
  • Chemoreceptors: Detect chemicals (taste, smell).
• Ascending and Descending Spinal Tracts: Know and provide the function of ascending and descending spinal tracts.
  • Ascending Tracts: Carry sensory information to the brain.
  • Descending Tracts: Carry motor commands from the brain to the body.
• Eye Structure and Functions: Describe the structure and functions of all parts of the eye.
• Ear Structure and Functions: Describe the structure and functions of all parts of the ear.