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Anatomy & Physiology I Exam Review

Unit 1

  • Anatomical Position: Describe the anatomical position and define the following terms:
    • Superior: Towards the head.
    • Inferior: Away from the head.
    • Anterior: Towards the front.
    • Posterior: Towards the back.
    • Ventral: Towards the front (same as anterior).
    • Dorsal: Towards the back (same as posterior).
    • Medial: Towards the midline of the body.
    • Lateral: Away from the midline of the body.
    • Deep: Away from the surface of the body.
    • Superficial: Towards the surface of the body.
    • Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment to the body.
    • Distal: Farther from the point of attachment to the body.
    • Cephalic: Relating to the head.
    • Caudal: Relating to the tail or inferior end.
  • Major Body Systems and Primary Functions: Identify the major body systems and their primary functions.
  • Planes of Reference: Identify the planes of reference including:
    • Coronal (Frontal): Divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.
    • Sagittal: Divides the body into left and right parts.
    • Transverse: Divides the body into superior and inferior parts.
  • Major Organic Molecules: Know the 4 major organic molecules, including function and monomer/polymer units.
    • Carbohydrates: Provide energy; Monomer - monosaccharides, Polymer - polysaccharides.
    • Lipids: Store energy, insulate, and protect; Monomer - fatty acids and glycerol, Polymer - triglycerides.
    • Proteins: Structural support, enzymes, transport, defense; Monomer - amino acids, Polymer - polypeptides.
    • Nucleic Acids: Store and transmit genetic information; Monomer - nucleotides, Polymer - DNA and RNA.
  • Passive Transport: Define and give examples of passive transport.
    • Facilitated Diffusion: Movement of molecules across a membrane with the help of transport proteins.
    • Diffusion: Movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
    • Osmosis: Movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration.
  • Major Cell Organelles: Know the major cell organelles and their function.
    • Nucleus: Control center of the cell, contains DNA.
    • Mitochondria: Produces ATP (energy) through cellular respiration.
    • Ribosomes: Synthesizes proteins.
    • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Synthesizes and transports proteins and lipids. (Rough ER has ribosomes, Smooth ER does not.)
    • Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids.
    • Lysosomes: Breaks down waste and cellular debris.
  • Major Types of Tissue: Identify and describe the structure, function, and location of the 4 major types of tissue with generalized characteristics of each.
    • Epithelial Tissue: Covers surfaces for protection, secretion, and absorption. Located in the lining of organs and glands.
    • Connective Tissue: Supports, connects, and separates different types of tissues and organs in the body. Found in bones, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and blood.
    • Muscle Tissue: Contracts to produce movement. Located in skeletal muscles, heart, and walls of internal organs.
    • Nervous Tissue: Transmits electrical signals for communication. Located in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
  • Skin Structure and Function: Describe structure and function of skin, including the strata of epidermis & layers of dermis.
    • Epidermis: Outer layer composed of stratified squamous epithelium. Strata include stratum corneum, stratum lucidum (only in thick skin), stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale.
    • Dermis: Inner layer composed of connective tissue. Layers include papillary layer and reticular layer.
  • Hair & Nails: Know the structure and functions of the hair & nails in the integumentary system.
    • Hair: Provides protection, insulation, and sensation.
    • Nails: Protect and support the tips of fingers and toes.

Unit 2

  • Skeletal System: Identify the functions and the components of the skeletal system including the bones and landmarks of the Axial and Appendicular skeleton.
    • Axial Skeleton: Skull, vertebral column, and rib cage.
    • Appendicular Skeleton: Bones of the limbs, pectoral girdle, and pelvic girdle.
  • Osteon: Know the structure and function of the osteon.
    • Osteon: Basic structural unit of compact bone, consisting of a central canal surrounded by concentric lamellae.
  • Bone Cells: Describe the structure and function of the types of bone cells.
    • Osteoblasts: Bone-forming cells.
    • Osteocytes: Mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix.
    • Osteoclasts: Bone-resorbing cells.
  • Long Bone Anatomy: Know the anatomy and terms of a long bone.
    • Diaphysis: Shaft of the long bone.
    • Epiphysis: Ends of the long bone.
    • Metaphysis: Region between diaphysis and epiphysis, contains growth plate.
    • Articular Cartilage: Covers the articular surfaces of the epiphysis.
    • Medullary Cavity: Cavity within the diaphysis containing bone marrow.
  • Endochondral Bone Formation: Know the processes of endochondral bone formation.
    • Endochondral Bone Formation: Process by which bone forms from a cartilage model.

Articulations

  • Joint Classifications: Know the joint classifications terms as well as the 6 types of synovial joints.
    • Fibrous: Immovable or slightly movable joints connected by fibrous connective tissue.
    • Cartilaginous: Slightly movable or immovable joints connected by cartilage.
    • Synovial: Freely movable joints with a joint cavity containing synovial fluid.
    • Types of Synovial Joints:
      • Ball-and-Socket: Shoulder and hip.
      • Hinge: Elbow and knee.
      • Pivot: Radioulnar joint.
      • Condylar: Wrist.
      • Saddle: Thumb.
      • Plane (Gliding): Intercarpal and intertarsal joints.
  • Synovial Joint Components: Identify and functionally describe the components of a synovial joint understanding the relationship between the mobility and stability of a joint.
    • Articular Cartilage: Reduces friction and absorbs shock.
    • Synovial Membrane: Produces synovial fluid.
    • Synovial Fluid: Lubricates and nourishes the joint.
    • Joint Capsule: Encloses the joint and provides stability.
  • Movements at Major Joints: Be able to describe and identify the different movements produced at major joints including the neck, shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee, and ankle. Include the named ligaments of the joints.

Unit 3

  • Muscle Anatomy: Diagram and describe the gross anatomy of a muscle including the whole muscle, muscle fascicle, muscle fiber (cell), and the CT layers - epimysium, perimysium, endomysium.
    • Whole Muscle: Consists of many fascicles.
    • Muscle Fascicle: Bundle of muscle fibers.
    • Muscle Fiber (Cell): Individual muscle cell.
    • Epimysium: Connective tissue covering the whole muscle.
    • Perimysium: Connective tissue surrounding each fascicle.
    • Endomysium: Connective tissue surrounding each muscle fiber.
  • Muscle Fiber: Diagram and functionally describe the muscle fiber including the sarcomere.
    • Sarcomere: Basic contractile unit of a muscle fiber, containing actin and myosin filaments.
  • Muscle Twitch: Define and describe the muscle twitch (latent, contraction, relaxation), and the all-or-none principle.
    • Latent Period: Time between stimulus and start of contraction.
    • Contraction Phase: Time during which muscle tension increases.
    • Relaxation Phase: Time during which muscle tension decreases.
  • All-or-None Principle: All-or-none principle states that the strength by which a nerve or muscle fiber responds to a stimulus is independent of the strength of the stimulus. If the stimulus exceeds the threshold potential, the nerve or muscle fiber will give a complete response; otherwise, there is no response.
  • Functions of Muscles: Identify the functions of muscles that belong to the body.

Unit 4

  • Central & Peripheral Nervous Systems: Describe the divisions of the Central & Peripheral Nervous Systems, noting the functions of each division.
    • Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.
    • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
  • Brain Areas: Describe the structure and functions of all areas of the cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, brainstem and spinal cord.
    • Cerebrum: Thinking, memory, and voluntary movements.
    • Cerebellum: Coordination and balance.
    • Diencephalon: Thalamus and hypothalamus.
    • Brainstem: Controls basic life functions.
    • Spinal Cord: Transmits signals between brain and body.
  • Reflexes: Know the types/categories of reflexes.
    • Reflexes: Rapid, involuntary responses to stimuli.
  • Cranial Nerves and Cervical/Brachial Plexi: Identify functions of each of 12 cranial nerves and of the nerves from the cervical and brachial plexi.
    • Cranial Nerves: I-XII (Olfactory, Optic, Oculomotor, Trochlear, Trigeminal, Abducens, Facial, Vestibulocochlear, Glossopharyngeal, Vagus, Accessory, Hypoglossal).
    • Cervical Plexus: Supplies the back of the head, neck, and shoulders.
    • Brachial Plexus: Supplies the upper limb.

Unit 5

  • Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Divisions: Know the differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous divisions of the ANS by their actions.
    • Sympathetic Nervous System: "Fight or flight" response.
    • Parasympathetic Nervous System: "Rest and digest" response.
  • Types of Receptors for General Senses: Know the types of receptors for the general senses and the type of stimuli that each detects.
    • Mechanoreceptors: Detect mechanical stimuli (touch, pressure, vibration).
    • Thermoreceptors: Detect temperature changes.
    • Nociceptors: Detect pain.
    • Chemoreceptors: Detect chemicals (taste, smell).
  • Ascending and Descending Spinal Tracts: Know and provide the function of ascending and descending spinal tracts.
    • Ascending Tracts: Carry sensory information to the brain.
    • Descending Tracts: Carry motor commands from the brain to the body.
  • Eye Structure and Functions: Describe the structure and functions of all parts of the eye.
  • Ear Structure and Functions: Describe the structure and functions of all parts of the ear.