AP Psychology - Mental & Physical Health (Clinical Psychology Edition)

Understanding Psychological Perspectives on Mental Disorders

• Abnormal Psychology: Study of unusual behavior patterns, emotions, and thoughts.

• Clinical Psychology: Assesses, diagnoses, treats, and prevents mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders.

• Psychology Student Syndrome: Psychology students may start thinking they have mental disorders. It is important not to diagnose friends, family, or yourself.

• Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR): Classification system used by mental health professionals to diagnose and categorize mental disorders.
  * Regularly updated to be responsive to new research

• International Classification of Mental Disorders (ICD): Global standard for reporting and categorizing diseases, including mental and behavioral disorders.

• Deviation: Significant departure from accepted social behaviors and cultural expectations.

  • Example: Conversing with invisible entities in public.

• Distress: Intense and prolonged emotional suffering impairing daily life function.

  • Example: Intense anxiety disproportionate to events, leading to social avoidance.

• Dysfunction: Disruption in cognitive, emotional, or behavioral functioning that impairs the ability to perform daily activities.

  • Example: Spending hours repeatedly checking doors, causing lateness and disruption.

• Stigma: Negative stereotypes and social disapproval directed at individuals with mental disorders.

  • Leads to discrimination and barriers to seeking help.

• Mental Health Awareness (May): Established in 1949 by Mental Health America to raise awareness, reduce stigma, and promote mental health.

  • Green ribbon represents hope, strength, and support.

Psychological Perspectives

• Biological Perspective: Mental disorders are caused by physiological and genetic factors.

  • Example: Biochemical imbalances in the brain, like irregular neurotransmitter levels.

• Behavioral Perspective: Mental disorders arise from maladaptive learned behaviors and associations.

  • Example: Developing a phobia after being bitten by a dog.

• Psychodynamic Perspective: Mental disorders stem from unresolved unconscious conflicts and impulses, often from childhood.

  • Example: Chronic feelings of inadequacy rooted in childhood experiences.

• Humanistic Perspective: Mental disorders arise when self-fulfillment and personal growth are blocked.

  • Example: Dissatisfaction despite career success due to pursuing external expectations.

• Cognitive Perspective: Mental disorders are caused by maladaptive thought patterns.

  • Example: Chronic depression due to ingrained beliefs of worthlessness.

• Evolutionary Perspective: Mental disorders can arise from behaviors that are maladaptive, reducing survival and reproduction chances.

  • Example: Severe social anxiety as an exaggerated form of an adaptive response.

• Sociocultural Perspective: Mental disorders stem from maladaptive social and cultural relationships.

  • Example: Immigrant facing cultural and linguistic barriers leading to alienation and depression.

• Eclectic Approach: Combines techniques and theories from multiple therapeutic orientations.

  • Example: Combining CBT, psychodynamic therapy, and mindfulness for PTSD and depression.

• Biopsychosocial Model: Psychological disorders result from the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.

  • Example: Biological predisposition, negative thinking patterns, and lack of social support contributing to anxiety and depression.

• Diathesis-Stress Model: Psychological disorders arise from a predisposing genetic vulnerability (diathesis) combined with stressful environmental factors.

  • Example: Genetic predisposition to depression triggered by job loss and relationship breakup.

Navigating Anxiety

• Anxiety Disorders: Characterized by excessive fear and anxiety leading to significant disturbances in behavior.

  • Generalized Anxiety Disorder
  • Panic Disorder
  • Phobia
  • Social Anxiety Disorder
  • Agoraphobia

• Specific Phobia: Intense and irrational fear of a specific object or situation.

  • Example: Irrational fear of flying, disrupting life and leading to avoidance.

• Acrophobia: Intense and persistent fear of heights.

• Arachnophobia: Intense and irrational fear of spiders.

• Agoraphobia: Intense fear of being in situations where escape might be difficult or help unavailable.

• Panic Disorder: Recurrent and unexpected panic attacks, sudden episodes of intense fear or discomfort.

  • Accompanied by symptoms like heart palpitations and concern about additional attacks.

• Ataque de Nervios: Episodes of intense emotional distress with dramatic expressions, commonly observed among individuals from Caribbean and Iberian backgrounds.

• Social Anxiety Disorder: Significant and persistent fear of social situations where embarrassment or scrutiny may occur.

  • Leads to avoidance and severe anxiety.

• Taijin Kyofusho (TKS): Predominantly observed in Japan, characterized by an intense fear of offending or embarrassing others.

• Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Persistent and excessive worry about various aspects of daily life.

  • Accompanied by physical symptoms such as restlessness and fatigue.

• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Recurrent, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions).

  • Aimed at reducing anxiety but causing distress and interference.

• Hoarding Disorder: Persistent difficulty discarding possessions due to a perceived need to save them.

  • Results in excessive accumulation compromising living areas.

• Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders: Involve distress following exposure to traumatic events.

  • Characterized by symptoms like hypervigilance, flashbacks, and emotional detachment.

• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Persistent stress following exposure to a traumatic event.

  • Symptoms include intrusive memories, avoidance, and heightened reactivity.

Diverse Mental Health Disorders

• Depressive Disorders: Characterized by persistent sad, empty, or irritable mood accompanied by physical and cognitive changes.

  • Major Depressive Disorder: Pervasive and persistent low mood accompanied by low self-esteem and loss of interest.

    • Significantly impacting daily functioning.

  • Persistent Depressive Disorder: Chronic, depressed mood lasting at least two years with less severe but longer-lasting symptoms.

• Bipolar Disorders: Characterized by alternating periods of mania and depression.

  • Bipolar I Disorder: Characterized by at least one manic episode, which may be preceded or followed by hypomanic or major depressive episodes, causing significant impairment in daily functioning.
  • Mania Symptoms: Elevated mood, increased energy, decreased need for sleep, racing thoughts.
  • Depression Symptoms: Sad mood, fatigue, insomnia, difficulty concentrating, suicidal thoughts.
  • Bipolar II Disorder: At least one hypomanic episode and one major depressive episode, without ever having a full manic episode

• Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Group of disorders beginning in the developmental period, affecting behavior, learning, and development.

  • Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Characterized by inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity interfering with functioning.
  • Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): Challenges in social communication and interaction, along with repetitive behaviors and interests.

• Feeding and Eating Disorders: Altered consumption or absorption of food, leading to impairment in health or psychological functioning.

  • Anorexia Nervosa: Restricted food intake, fear of gaining weight, and distorted body image.
  • Bulimia Nervosa: Recurrent binge eating episodes followed by inappropriate compensatory behaviors to prevent weight gain.

• Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorders: Characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking or speech, disorganized motor behavior, and negative symptoms.

  • Psychosis: Mental state characterized by a disconnection from reality.
  • Positive Symptoms: Additional behaviors not present in healthy individuals.
    • Delusions: False beliefs strongly held.
    • Hallucinations: False sensory experiences without external stimuli.
    • Disorganized Thinking/Speech: incoherent speech patterns.
    • Disorganized Motor Behavior: abnormal or erratic movements.
  • Negative Symptoms: Deficits in normal emotional and behavioral functions.
    • Affective Flattening: Reduced expression of emotions.
    • Alogia: Reduced speech output.
    • Anhedonia: Inability to experience pleasure.
    • Avolition: Lack of motivation.
  • Dopamine Hypothesis: Schizophrenia is linked to an imbalance of dopamine activity in the brain.

• Dissociative Disorders: Characterized by disruptions in consciousness, memory, identity, or perception.
  * Dissociative Amnesia: Inability to recall important autobiographical information.

  • Dissociative Identity Disorder: Presence of two or more distinct personality states or identities.

Exploring Personality Disorders

• Personality Disorders: Enduring patterns of internal experience and behavior that deviate from cultural expectations, are pervasive/inflexible, start by early adulthood, and lead to distress/ impairment.

• Cluster A Personality Disorders: Characterized by odd or eccentric behaviors and thinking.

  • Paranoid Personality Disorder: Pervasive distrust and suspicion of others, interpreting their motives as malevolent.
  • Schizoid Personality Disorder: Detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression.
  • Schizotypal Personality Disorder: Acute discomfort in close relationships, cognitive or perceptual distortions, and eccentric behaviors.

• Cluster B Personality Disorders: Characterized by dramatic, emotional, or erratic behaviors.

  • Antisocial Personality Disorder: Disregard for and violation of the rights of others, often involving deceitful and unlawful behaviors.
  • Histrionic Personality Disorder: Excessive emotionality and attention-seeking behavior, including a need for approval and inappropriate seductiveness.
  • Narcissistic Personality Disorder: Grandiosity, a need for admiration, and a lack of empathy for others.
  • Borderline Personality Disorder: Instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions, along with impulsive behaviors and intense fear of abandonment.

• Cluster C Personality Disorders: Characterized by anxious or fearful behaviors.

  • Avoidant Personality Disorder: Social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to negative evaluation.
  • Dependent Personality Disorder: Excessive need to be taken care of, leading to submissive and clinging behavior, and fears of separation.
  • Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder: Preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control.

• Generalizability in Research:

  • Can we apply these findings to other groups?
  • Strong Generalizability – Diverse Demographics
  • Weak Generalizability – Specific Demographics

Modern Approaches to Mental Health Care

• Deinstitutionalization: Reducing patients in psychiatric hospitals by transitioning them to community-based services.
• Evidence-Based Interventions: therapeutic approaches are supported by scientific research and empirical evidence.
• Therapeutic Alliance: Collaborative and trusting relationship between a therapist and client.
• Cultural Humility: Ongoing process of self-reflection and learning about clients' cultural backgrounds.
• Nonmaleficence: Ethical principle of "do no harm."
• Fidelity: Maintaining trust, honesty, and commitment in the therapeutic relationship.
• Integrity: Being honest, transparent, and consistent in professional actions.
• Respect for People's Rights & Dignity: Recognizing and honoring the inherent worth of all individuals.
• Psychodynamic Therapies: Focus on uncovering unconscious conflicts and past experiences.
  • Free Association: Speaking freely about thoughts and feelings.
  • Dream Interpretation: Analyzing dream content.
• Person-Centered Therapy: Supportive environment for self-discovery.
  • Active Listening: Fully concentrating on the client and understanding their words.
  • Unconditional Positive Regard: Acceptance and support offered by the therapist.
  • Group Therapy: Therapy conducted with multiple participants.
  • Individual Therapy: Therapy conducted one-on-one

Transformative Therapeutic Strategies

• Cognitive Therapies: Identifying and changing negative thought patterns to improve emotional regulation.
• Maladaptive Thinking: Negative thought patterns.
• Cognitive Restructuring: Identifying and replacing negative thought patterns.
• Cognitive Triad: Negative thoughts about oneself, the world, and the future.
• Applied Behavior Analysis: Uses principles of learning to improve specific behaviors.
• Exposure Therapy: Gradual exposure to feared objects or situations.
• Systematic Desensitization: Gradually exposing to anxiety with relaxation techniques.
• Aversion Therapy: Pairing unwanted behaviors with unpleasant stimuli.
• Token Economies: Earning tokens for desired behaviors.
• Biofeedback: Using electronic monitoring for physiological processes.
• Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies (CBT): Combines cognitive and behavioral techniques to improve coping strategies.
• Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT): Enhances emotional regulation and relationships.
• Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT): Changing irrational beliefs.
• Hypnosis: Reduces pain and anxiety (but not accurate for memories).

Biological Interventions

• Psychotropic Medication Therapy: Using medications to treat mental health disorders by affecting brain chemistry.
• Psychoactive Medications: Affect brain chemistry and are used to treat mental health disorders. Used to alleviate symptoms and improve emotional and cognitive functioning.
  * Antidepressants: Alter brain chemistry, increasing neurotransmitter levels, to improve mood and emotional state.
  * Lithium: Used to treat bipolar disorder, stabilizing mood swings.
  * Antianxiety Drugs: Alleviate anxiety symptoms by affecting neurotransmitters.
  * Benzodiazepines: Act on the central nervous system to produce a calming effect by enhancing the effect of GABA.
  * Azapirones: Non-sedative and has a slower onset of action used for long-term management of generalized anxiety.
  * Antipsychotic Medications: Treat symptoms of schizophrenia by altering neurotransmitter activity.
  * Atypical Antipsychotics: Newer and have less motor side effects.
  * Typical Antipsychotics: Effective for positive symptoms but may increase higher risk of side effects.
• Tardive Dyskinesia: Potential side effect of antipsychotic medications, characterized by repetitive, involuntary movements.
• Psychosurgery: Surgically altering brain tissue to treat severe mental disorders, typically as a last resort.
  • Lobotomy: severing connections in the brain's prefrontal cortex (is largely abandoned due to harmful side effects).
  • Lesioning: Creating small, targeted brain damage to treat neurological or psychological disorders when other treatments are ineffective.
  • TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation): Non-invasive procedure to stimulate nerve cells in the brain.
  • Electroconvulsive Therapy: Sending electric currents through the brain to induce a brief seizure when other treatments have been ineffective.