Unit 6: Consequences of Industrialization 1750-1900

Unit 6: Consequences of Industrialization 1750-1900

6.1: Rationales for Imperialism 1750-1900 a

• Imperialism arose from IR

  • Imperialistic fervor grew due to culture, nationalism, and economics

  • Most imperialistic advances were made by European powers

    • They believed in the superiority of the white race and their culture

• Cultural reasons for Imperialism

  • Saw themselves as benevolent protectors to spread their “superior” culture to the rest of the world

    • Rudyard Kipling called it the white man’s burden

  • Another reason was Darwinism

    • Darwin argued for the survival of the fittest and some people applied these principles to society creating Social Darwinism 

      • They argued that if nature is fighting for survival, strong nations should also take over weak nations

  • Religion

    • European christians spread throughout the world with a missionary zeal to convert the world

      • Empires needed a presence in as many places as possible for that to succeed

      • Missionaries established schools in imperial territories to teach religion, math, and science

      • Also created hospitals and helped stop the slave trade

• Nationalist reasons for Imperialism

  • Nationalism: when a group of people who have a strong common identity become loyal to a single state

  • After losing American Colonies, Britain looked around world to see where else they could establish an empire 

    • Imperialized all across the globe “The sun never set on the British Empire” and created very wealthy and important colonies

    • Most important was India

  • France also established colonies, throughout North Africa, especially Algeria; Canada; Southeast Asia, including Indochina (SEA)

  • Nationalism also drove Japan towards empire building as well

    • Late 1800s, Japan was increasingly encroaching on Korea’s economy and politics

    • Angered Qing leadership in China that started a war in 1894: Sino-Japanese War

    • Japan had advanced weapons from modernizing in the Meiji Restoration and beat China, establishing Korea as a colony of their own

• Economic motives for Imperialism

  • Industrial powers became hungry for more raw materials and new markets to sell manufactured goods to

  • British, Dutch, and French rulers chartered agreements with local rulers in India, the East Indies, and East Africa

  • Gave Europeans the right to establish these trading posts and the right to defend the trading posts

    • That allowed europeans to create armies for their trading posts and defend themselves which was very important

    • Britain became very powerful in 19th century in first IR and only became challenged after second IR

6.2: State Expansion 1750-1900 t 

• Imperialism: when a country extends its power and influence into other lands, sometimes by diplomacy or sometimes by force

• European expansion into Africa

  • Europe had been expanding its influence into Africa since the 1800s

  • For much of the 19th century Europe’s influence in Africa was restricted to trading posts so they wanted more

• British (and rest of Europe) wanted a shorter sea-based route to Asian trading posts

  • Wanted to build a canal across Egypt to connect the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea

    • Suez Canal built in 1869

    • In 1882, Britain took the land from the Ottomans 

  • Britain wanted more colonies in Africa as well

    • Originally had agreements with local rulers that benefitted both sides

    • After imperialistic fervor grew, Britain ignored the agreements and took more land by force

    • Established colonial holdings in Sierra Leone, Gambia, Lagos, and the Gold Coast

• French took similar amounts of land in West Africa

  • Ousted the ottomans from Algeria in 1830 and created a settler colony

    • When people from mother country come to live in the colony

    • Huge influx of french, spanish, and italian immigrants to Algeria

• Scramble for Africa

  • As more and more lands were claimed by European powers in Africa, competition for land began to heat up

  • Otto von Bismarck of Germany realized that a war was going to begin so instead he called Berlin Conference of 1884 where imperial leaders distributed Africa among themselves

    • Became a problem because they drew boundaries for what worked for them cutting along united Africans and combined long standing rival groups

  • Belgian king Leopold II pushed into the Congo and claimed it as his own personal holding

    • Not a colony of the state but the owner

    • Used brutal policies to Congolese such as forced labor to extract ivory and rubber from the land

      • Over 8 million people died due to his policies

    • By 1908, Belgian state took over colony and improved conditions

• Imperialism into Asia

  • British presence in India

    • Under the auspices of the British East India Company, Britain claimed more and more territory from the weakened Mughal empire, and eventually, they conquered all of India

    • Originally used their own troops but then recruited indian soldiers called sepoys to join the effort

  • European powers in China used economic imperialism

    • During the time China was insatiable due to natural disasters and internal rebellion

    • Western powers moved in and used military to demand trading rights with China, and China was forced to agree

    • Western powers carved up china into spheres of influence

      • Qing dynasty remained in power but western powers had exclusive trading rights in their own sphere

  • Japan’s imperialism

    • Had a modernized military b/c of Meiji Restoration

    • Wanted colonial holdings rich in raw materials

      • Expanded into Korea, SEA, parts of China, and parts of Indonesia

  • Dutch also imperialized into southeast asia

    • Dutch East India Company (VOC) became dominant in those areas 

      • Due to internal corruption they eventually failed

      • Government stepped in after failure and took colonial holdings

  • British colonized Australia and New Zealand

    • Australia was originally a penal colony 

      • Britain sent Convicts to Australia

    • By 1820s they had taken all of Australia and they realized that they could use the land for production of wool 

    • Also found copper and gold in Australia so more people colonized

    • New Zealand, occupied by the Maori people was established as a settler colony

      • Relocated Maori to a separate location but eventually fought Maori in the New Zealand Wars where Britain won starting long lasting resentment from the Maori

  • United States imperialism

    • Expanded in their own continent, there was an urge to push westward in the American identity

      • Relocated millions of natives

      • In 1830, American Congress passed the Indian Removal Act which led to the systematic removal of American Indians from the east onto reservations in the midwest

      • Migration known as trail of tears for abuse and death endured

    • Idea of Manifest Destiny

      • Americans thought that God gave them all of America and it was their duty to take it

    • Late part of 19th century, after conquering to California, America gathered resources for an overseas empire

      • Spanish American war in 1898

      • America declared war on Spain and won territory including Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico, and Cuba

  • Russia also expanded

    • Catherine II expanded Russian empire

      • Won half of Poland from the Ottomans

    • Alexander I annexed Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova, Finland, and part of Armenia

    • Later, Russia acquired a large portion of Manchuria from China

6.3: Indigenous Responses to State Expansion 1750-1900 a 

• When imperial nations pushed into new nations, often indigenous people found a surge of nationalism

  • Led to resistance against the encroachment of imperial powers

• Americas:

  • At first U.S. was a series of British colonies

  • After British won French and Indian War (1754–1763) they established Proclamation of 1763 which took land from French and reserved all lands in the Ohio River Valley for the natives

    • However, Americans pushed westward anyways

    • Part of larger war called 7 years war

  • After winning independence, still continued pushing to west coast

  • Cherokee Natives:

  • Had dealt with British colonists and Americans for a long time

    • Assimilated into Americas to deal with encroachment, creating a constitutional government and adopting American customs

      • Worked until gold was discovered on their land

  • Indian Removal Act of 1830 sent all natives along the trail of tears

• Native Resistance movements in the later 18th century

  • Ghost dance: Natives in northwest believed in a prophecy that announced that their ancestral dead would return and drive the white man out of their lands

  • Engaged in a series of ritualistic dances and songs in order to hasten that event

  • Ghost dance spread across many of the natives peoples of America

  • Resulted in conflict at Wounded Knee in 1890 where the Sioux Natives were crushed by the Americans, ending the Indian Wars in America

• Peru:

  • Cacique, hereditary leader, named Tupac Amaru II led an armed rebellion against Spanish colonial leaders because they were sick of abuse

    • Imprisoned spanish leader for cruelty and Spanish retaliated inciting a rebellion among the natives in Peru and other SA nations

    • Amaru was eventually captured and executed, marking the last major Indian revolt against Spain

• Mexico:

  • Benito Juarez was of Zapotec (pre-columbian) blood and was in power 

    • Liberal who despised foreign influence, especially the French

    • Conservative members of government resented his liberalism and saw the French encroachment as a way to oust Juarez

    • Conspired with european powers to overthrow Juarez’ government

  • French occupation was short lived and after 3 years of armed resistance, the french were ousted from mexico

• Australia:

  • 1788, British established penal colony in Australia

    • Settlers began to come to Australia and British government demanded that the settlers be kind to the aboriginal people

      • Eventually settlers realized the native people couldn’t complain to the crown about intrusion and pushed onto native lands anyways

    • Natives rose up in their own defense but British military crushed them

• Africa:

  • European powers often set up colonial governments run by Europeans

    • Xhosa people in South Africa refused to be ruled by the Europeans

    • Fought with British for over 40 years in the 19th century

  • Xhosa Cattle Killing Movement led to over 400,000 cows dying

    • Near the end of the time, many Xhosa cattle were killed by the Xhosa because they believed the cattle’s spirits would drive the Europeans out

    • Only resulted in famine and death

  • West Africa: Sokoto Caliphate (1806 - 1906)

    • Trade in west Africa led to a collision of values and circulation of ideas across the Sahara

    • The Fulani were pastoralists and nomadic, some were sedentary and converted to Islam

      • They wanted to recreate a pure Islam

    • Usman Dan Fodio’s Movement was inspired by Muhammad, calling for a return to earlier Islamic practices

      • Urged Jihad against unbelievers or false believers

    • Led a successful revolted against the Hausa Landlords and established a confederation of Islamic Emirates and Sokoto Caliphate

    • Dismantled in Berlin Conference and given to Britain

  • West Africa: france

    • French wanted a part of west africa but faced resistance

    • Chief named Samory Toure created Wassoulou Empire (1878–1898) in West Africa

      • Resisted french violently in a series of conflicts called Samory Toure’s war

      • French won and created colony

  • East Africa: Sudan

    • Muhammad Ahmad, an Islamic cleric in Sudan saw that his country was next for imperialism so gathered an army to fight against British in 1880 

      • He defeated the British which became known as the Mahdist Revolt

    • After he died, movement disintegrated 

    • British returned to Sudan in 1896 and defeated Mahdists and took over

• Balkans: had been ruled by Ottomans for a while

  • Ottomans were losing grip on balkans

  • Resentment regarding ottoman occupation bubbled close to the surface in places like greece, serbia, bulgaria

    • Resulted in fierce nationalism as those countries rose against the ottomans and gained their independence

6.4: Global Economic Development 1750-1900 t 

• As nations grew their industrial capacity, they found they needed more raw materials and food to feed workers

• Agriculture

  • Before Europeans, most Africans engaged in subsistence farming

    • They only farmed enough for them to live on

    • Europeans replaced subsistence with cash crop farming

    • Cash crops are crops that are grown not to live from but for sale in a distant market

  • African plantations were dedicated to cash crops such as coffee, rubber, or sugar

    • They were exported to foreign markets

  • Increase in demand for beef (meat)

    • Rising consumer class, people wanted more meat

    • Colonies in Argentina and Uruguay raising large amounts of cows who were then refrigerated and shipped to europe using the new technology

  • Guano: bat and seabird poop

    • As agriculture increased, so did demand for fertilizer

    • Guano in Peru and Argentina had been piling up for centuries so it became a huge part of Peru and Chile’s export economy

• Raw materials

  • Factories needed raw materials to continue making manufactured goods

  • Turned to colonies to provide the raw materials

  • Cotton

    • During IR, 80% of cotton for British textiles was imported from America

    • During the Civil War, cotton production dropped dramatically

    • Britain turned to Egypt, and by the 1800s, 90+% of Egypt’s exports were cotton

      • Also turned to India for cotton

  • Rubber

    • Rubber was important for IR, it was used for tires, soles of shoes, hoses, gaskets for machines, etc.

    • Rubber comes from rubber tree grown in Amazon rainforest

      • Colonial powers forced natives to work at rubber extraction destroying land to plant rubber trees

  • Palm oil 

    • Came from west africa, important for food 

    • Became a great lubricant for factory machines 

    • Palm oil became a cash crop using enslaved laborers to produce it

  • Diamonds

    • Starting in 1871, there was a diamond rush in South Africa

    • Cecil Rhodes formed the DeBeers Mining Company, and because of his ambition in this area, South Africa was exporting 90% of the world’s diamonds by 1890

    • Rhodes became very powerful and was elected to the South African Parliament

    • 1890 Rhodes became Prime Minister of the Cape Colony

      • His racial policies led to the apartheid

• Consequence 1: an increasingly interconnected global economy

  • Raw materials sold to imperial nations and imperial nations sold manufactured goods back to the colonies

    • Also began to import food from colonies to keep up with growing population, assisted by the invention of the refrigerator

• Consequence 2: narrowing and weakening of the colonial economies

  • Large-scale shift to cash crop farming meant that the colonial people often grew cash crops at the expense of other agricultural necessities

  • Colonies were in trouble if the sole cash crop they exported was in trouble

  • Crops like cotton severely deplete the nutrients in the soil

    • There was only so long the crop could be planted in the same soil so if the crop failed, so did the economy

6.5: Economic Imperialism 1750-1900 a

• Sometimes imperialism was economic rather than political

  • Economic imperialism: a situation in which one country has significant economic power over another country

• British East India Company

  • Established themselves in India in the early 1600s in order to become involved in the lucrative Indian spice trade

  • Britain wanted more so began to exert more political dominance over the Indian economy

    • Led India into a situation where the majority of their export economy was made up of cotton exported to Britain

• China

  • British demanded huge quantities of porcelain, silk, tea but they did not export goods to china

    • They were spending lots of money in China while China did not spend money on British goods

    • Led to trade deficit in Britain and they lost a lot of silver to the Qing

  • British East India Company forced indian farmers to start manufacturing opium

    • British smuggled large amounts of opium into China and sold them to the people

      • The more chinese that got addicted to opium, the more the british sold

    • 1729 Chinese emperor made buying and selling of opium illegal

      • Too many people had become addicted to it by then so it was too late

    • After a century of this, chinese grew tired of abuse and rose up against British in the Opium Wars

      • First conflicts were in 1839 and the main goal was for the chinese to oust the british

      • Britain won because of their industrial weapons

  • After opium wars, Britain did not take over politically but they did take over economically

    • Forced China to open additional ports of trade to Britain and by requiring a free-trade agreement

  • Opium Wars showed the world that industrialized nations destroyed non-industrialized nations in war

    • Other nations later in the 1800s came to China wanting to get their own part of free trade

    • Countries agreed to split up china into spheres of influence

    • Japan, France, U.S., Britain, Russia, Germany each got spheres where they had exclusive trading rights

• Latin America

  • Second half of 19th century, big imperial interest in Latin America

    • Countries wanted raw materials, low wage workers, and markets for their goods

    • U.S. signed Monroe Doctrine in 1823

      • Said that most of the western hemisphere belonged to the U.S. and European intervention was no longer welcome

      • U.S. had become powerful from second IR compared to Latin America

      • Invested heavily in industrialization of places like Mexico and Cuba

      • Object of these investments were railroads and the development of industries like meat packing, guano extraction, mining

  • Britain did similar things in Argentina

    • Invested huge sums of money into Argentina, especially in breeding livestock, farming, and railroads

    • Britain helped finance the building of the Port of Buenos Aires

    • In order to facilitate the massive import and export of raw materials and manufactured goods

  • Spains in Chile

    • Chile was a colonial holding of Spain, initially economy was entirely dependent on agricultural exports to Spain

      • Once copper was discovered in Chilean hillside, it became a big part of Chile’s export economy

6.6: Causes of Migration 1750-1900 

• Migration Through Labor Systems

  • Slavery abolished in early 19th century

    • Labor still necessary for plantations/farms, etc

  • Laborers on the move

    • Indian Laborers migrated to British Colonies in Caribbean, South Africa, Fiji

    • Chinese move to California and Malaya to build railroads and farms

    • Japanese moved to Hawaii, Peru, and Cuba for sugar plantations

• Slavery

  • Ended in early 19th century (1800s)

    • 1856: Abolished in U.S. 

    • 1886 Cuba

    • 1888 Brazil

  • Slave trade stopped but slavery very continued 

  • Labor was needed, so countries still coerced labor

• Indentured Servitude

  • People worked for set number of years in exchange for passage and better opportunity 

    • Africa → West Indies, India → Fiji, etc

  • Meant to be temporary, but sometimes became permanent

• Asia Contract Labor

  • 1847-1874: 250k-500k Chinese were sent to British, Spanish, Dutch Colonies in Asia, Africa, and Caribbean

  • Worked in Sugar plantations or unskilled jobs

  • British stopped in 1855, US ended in 1862, Portugal ended in 1874

• British Penal Colonies

  • 1700: set up in Australia

    • Took convicts from England, Scotland, Ireland, and colonies

  • Suffered harsh treatment and performed labor

    • Labor for free settlers

  • Became desirable location after gold was discovered there in 1851

    • Attracted 50k Chinese

• French Penal Colonies

  • Africa, New Caledonia, French Guiana

    • New Caledonia: most harsh conditions, “devil’s island”, limited food/resources

      • Island west of South America

    • French Guiana: bigger population, more resources

• Diaspora: Large migrations from a country or a region over a large period of time

  • India

    • 1833: British sent Indians to Mauritius

      • Western Africa

      • Indentured servitude

    • 5 year contracts in exchange for land or permanent settlement

    • Kangani: systems in Ceylon and Malaya where family members recruited other extended family to work in another country

    • Maistry: system in Burma (SEAsia), recruited labors within a structured labor. Labor was often exploitative with poor conditions 

  • China

    • Mostly male immigration from China to California for Gold Rush

      • 1849: Gold was discovered in California

    • Chinese were often not first time mine

      • When they found mines, they were oftentimes beat up by Americans and taken over

      • Or after a mine was dug and Americans took most gold, Chinese went to pan/hose the rest of the gold

    • Held jobs or owned companies that supported mining

      • Laundry washing

      • Shoe cleaning

      • Industrial jobs

  • Irish

    • Britain abolished Irish government in 1801, joined the Crown

      • Many left the country because restriction of freedom

    • 1845-1849: Great Famine, contributed to emigration

      • Potatoes were all that was left; crops died. If there is any produce, it was sent to England

      • Caused 3 million to exit

      • Most went to the U.S., some: England, Scotland, Canada, Australia 

  • Migration to Settler Colonies

    • Colonial Service: Gov’t officials or British army soldiers

    • British citizens left to colonize and stay in Canada, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand (more permanent)

    • India, Malaya, and Kenya became temporary locations (too hot? not favored)

  • Technical Experts

    • Engineers and Geologists moved around the globe

    • Western Science and Technology moved around the World

    • Geologist

      • Andrew Geddes Baine

        • Created first map of South Africa

        • Allowed for railroads

        • Faster transportation

    • Railroads

      • Invented in Britain by George Stevenson

      • British brought railroads and steam power technology wherever they went

  • Argentina

    • “Jewel in the Crown” of the British Empire

    • Bankers, Businessmen, Engineers migrated there

      • Nice place to live, good terrain

    • imported goods were mainly for middle class not unskilled labor (luxury items, etc)

    • Advanced the population, didn’t hurt

  • Japan

    • Closed to outside world until 1868

    • Late 1893: Japanese wanted to create overseas empire

      • Wanted to export goods and excess population

      • Young Japanese men were sent overseas to study on the U.S. or West Coast

      • Gentleman’s agreement between U.S. and Japan

        • Japan said “We won't sent more people, so please accept them into communities/schools and be nicer”

6.7: Effects of Migration 1750-1900

• Changes in Home Societies

  • Migrant laborers often times male

    • Difficult work

  • Shifted gender roles and demographics

    • Women filled in “male” jobs

  • More money made, money was sent back home

    • Allowed women at home to work less and focus on building a home

    • Children went to school

  • Allowed for families at home to focus on school

• Effects of Migration on Receiving Societies 

  • Ethnic Enclaves: clusters or neighborhoods of people from same foreign country formed across globe

    • Ex. Chinatown, Little Italy

  • Chinese Enclaves

    • Southeast Asia

      • Chinese culture was spread across world

      • French encouraged commerce

        • Colonized the area, called it “Indochina”

          • Burma/Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia

      • Many Chinese here became business owners & traders

    • The U.S.

      • Chinese first immigrated during Gold Rush and Transcontinental Railroad

    • South America

      • 225k laborers sent to Cuba and Peru on 8 year contracts

        • Replaced slave labor on sugar plantations

      • Built Andean Railroad and Guano Mines

      • Chifa: Chinese and Peruvian fusion cuisine 

• Indians in Southeast Asia (SEA) / Africa

  • British East Africa and Natal

    • 1883: Slavery abolished by Crown

      • Replaced by Indentured Servants

      • Built railways and worked on sugar plantations

        • Could do this with maps; ship around quicker

    • 1893: Gandhi arrived in South Africa to practice law

      • Suffered from racial discrimination and became activist

    • 1914: Gandhi return to India to continue movement

  • Southeast Asia

    • 1834-1937; 100+ years

      • India was major source of labor

    • Because of proximity to India, family ties were held

      • Kangani system: less restrictive

• Irish in North America

  • Scots-Irish: Came to flee the Crown by indentured servitude

    • Crown absorbed the Irish government

    • Potato Famine

  • Irish men worked on farms and canal system in the north east

    • 1800-1900 ish

    • Also fought for union army in civil war

    • Police, firemen

  • Many held unfavorable jobs

    • Many became labor activists

    • Irish were able to assimilate and were a little bit more respected in comparison to ex. Chinese

  • Single Irish Women came looking for husbands and became domestic servants

• Prejudice and Regulation of Immigration

  • 1879: Congress limits Chinese immigrants’ rights

    • Chinese excluded from public works / state jobs

    • As a result, there are a lot of Chinese businesses

  • Those not white were prevented from becoming citizens

  • Encouraged segregation of population

  • Chinese Exclusion act of 1882

    • Initially 10 years: No incoming Chinese immigrants. NONE except for those with family connections., etc

    • Not repealed until 1943

6.8: Causation in the Imperial Age 1750-1900

• Changes in the Standard of Living

  • Automation caused production to increase

    • Industrialization led to an increase in efficiency

      • Textiles, furnitures, clothes, etc

    • As efficiency increased, prices dropped

    • Standard of living across the world increased

  • As more things could be bought and sold, wages increased

    • Thus consumption increased

  • Income gap increased exponentially

    • Standard of living didn’t rise for everyone

      • Former slaves, laborers

• Overseas Expansion

  • Industrial Revolution: Overproduction became a problem

    • International trade increased

      • Countries wanted to export goods

      • Caused economic and political rivalries

  • Countries used government and militaries to find markets

    • Coal, Iron, Tin, Rubber, Copper

      • From Africa, South America, SEA, LatAm colonies

  • Western Europe, Japan, U.S.

    • Saw benefits in controlling foreign market

      • Monroe Doctrine: heavy involvement of U.S. in South America

        • Panama Canal

      • British coal mines in Africa

    • Little economic development in exporting countries

    • Countries in Africa and SEA that avoided colonization became dominated by Western Powers (France and Britain)

      • Advances in military technology, ship building, and medicine

Imperialism vs. Colonialism

• Revolution and Rebellion

  • Independence and Revolutions

    • Mexico, Colombia, Brazil, Venezuela gained independence

    • Many were previously Spanish or Portuguese colonies

  • Sepoy Rebellion

    • Indian soldiers rebelled against East India Trading Company

    • Disbanded the EITC

• Migration and Discrimination

  • Migration from rural to industrial areas

  • European immigrants moved to the U.S. and Canady to work in industry