Lipids: Monoglycerides and fatty acids stuck together formed into rings or chains of hydrocarbons.. Long term energy storage (fats) e.g. Triglycerides main lipid blood, cholesterol cell membrane flexiblity, testosterone & estrogen (hormones) made up of lipids.

Proteins: Made out of Amino acids, enzymes, e.g., structural (hair,skin,nails,and feathers, protections white blood cells (antibodies)

Nucleic Acids: Phosphate, Sugar, Nitrogenous Base.. Information storage: ( DNA/RNA,) ADP + ATP (Energy Storage ) .

2. General Cell Biology

Cell Basics

What is a cell?

Smallest unit of life that can function independently and perform all the necessary functions of life, including reproducing itself.

Must function of at least one cell to be considered aliv e

Parts of Cell Theory

All living organisms are made of cells.

Cells are the basic unit of structure and function.

All cells come from pre-existing cells.

Cell Structures and Organelles

Prokaryotic Cells (e.g., Bacteria, Archaea)

Prokaryotic cells are much simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells. Here's a list of key organelles/structures found in prokaryotic cells:

Plasma Membrane:

Found in: All cells, including prokaryotes.

Function: Protects the cell and controls what enters and exits (like a gatekeeper).

Cell Wall:

Found in: Most prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea).

Function: Provides structure, support, and protection. Bacterial cell walls are made of peptidoglycan, while archaeal cell walls are different.

Cytoplasm:

Found in: All cells.

Function: A gel-like substance inside the cell where chemical reactions happen.

Ribosomes:

Found in: All cells, including prokaryotes.

Function: Makes proteins by assembling amino acids. In prokaryotes, the ribosomes are smaller (70S).

Nucleoid:

Found in: Prokaryotes.

Function: The region where the DNA is located (it’s not enclosed in a membrane, like in eukaryotes).

Flagella (sometimes):

Found in: Some prokaryotes.

Function: Used for movement.

Pili (or Pilus):

Found in: Some prokaryotes.

Function: Hair-like structures that help with attachment to surfaces or with exchanging genetic material.

Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic cells are more complex and contain many membrane-bound organelles. Animals and plants share most of these organelles, but they also have their own unique structures.

Common Organelles in Both Animal and Plant Eukaryotic Cells:

Nucleus:

Found in: Both animal and plant eukaryotic cells.

Function: Contains the cell’s DNA and controls gene expression. The nuclear membrane surrounds the nucleus and regulates what enters and exits.

Plasma Membrane:

Found in: Both animal and plant cells.

Function: Protects the cell and controls what enters and exits (just like in prokaryotes).

Cytoplasm:

Found in: Both animal and plant cells.

Function: The fluid that fills the cell where most chemical reactions occur.

Ribosomes:

Found in: Both animal and plant cells.

Function: Makes proteins by linking amino acids. In eukaryotes, ribosomes are larger (80S) than in prokaryotes.

Mitochondria:

Found in: Both animal and plant cells.

Function: The "powerhouse" of the cell; produces energy (ATP) through cellular respiration. Animal cellsuse mitochondria for energy production, and plant cells use them as well, but also have another organelle (chloroplasts) for energy production through photosynthesis.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

Found in: Both animal and plant cells.

Function: Two types:

Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes; helps make proteins.

Smooth ER: No ribosomes; makes lipids and detoxifies the cell.

Golgi Apparatus:

Found in: Both animal and plant cells.

Function: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids from the ER for transport within or outside the cell.

Lysosomes:

Found in: Mainly animal cells (rare in plant cells).

Function: Contain digestive enzymes to break down waste and cellular debris.

Cytoskeleton:

Found in: Both animal and plant cells.

Function: Provides structural support, shape, and aids in cell movement. Includes microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.

Organelles Found Only in Plant Cells:

Cell Wall:

Found in: Only plant cells (and some fungi, bacteria).

Function: Provides structure and protection. The plant cell wall is made of cellulose.

Chloroplasts:

Found in: Only plant cells (and some protists).

Function: Contains chlorophyll and is responsible for photosynthesis, the process of turning sunlight into food for the plant.

Central Vacuole:

Found in: Only plant cells.

Function: A large, central vacuole that stores water, nutrients, and waste. It also helps maintain turgor pressure (the pressure that keeps the plant cell rigid).

Organelles Found Only in Animal Cells:

Centrioles:

Found in: Only animal cells.

Function: Help with cell division by organizing the spindle fibers during mitosis.

Lysosomes:

Found in: Mainly animal cells (though rare in plants).

Function: Contain enzymes that digest waste and worn-out cell parts.

Cell-to-Cell Connections

Gap Junctions: (Animal Cells) Allow communication between cells.

Tight Junctions (Animal Cells) : Made of proteins that hold the cells together so closely nothing gets in between.

Plasmodesmata: Allowing in plant cells for communication.

Desmosomes (Animal cells) Provide muscle strength and can be allowed flexiblity for movement

Cellular Division & Mitosis

Chromosomes vs. Sister Chromatids vs. Homologs

Chromosomes: DNA molecules.

Sister Chromatids: Identical copies of chromosomes.

Homologs: Chromosomes from each parent.

Apoptosis: Programmed cell death. (keeps track of how much times you go through miotic phase)

Mitosis: Cell division process (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase).

Prophase: Divide up + Chromosome's condense,

Metaphase: Sister chromatids line up at the center of the cell

Anaphase: The sister chromatid pairs are pulled away and pulled apart

Telophase: Reforms two new cells

Interphase: G1, S, G2 phases.

G1- Cell Growth (signals molecules to get ready to divide)

S phase (synthesis)

G2- More Cell Growth ( check point) to ensure all growth is done and DNA is duplicated

Why Cells Divide: Growth, repair, and reproduction.

3. Intro to Physiology

Biological Organization

Biological Organization

Cell * Muscle Cell

Tissue * Smooth Muscle Tissue

Organ * Stomach

Organ System * Digestive System

Tissues: 4 Types:

Epithelial: Separating the outlines of organs

Connective: Supports and connects (bone, blood) forms a 3-dimensional shape of that organ

Muscle: More than the muscles we use but still involved in a form of movement

Nervous: Allows cells to send and receive electrochemical signals

(info about what's happening inside and outside of ur body)

Organ Systems

Function of Organ Systems

Understand how each system maintains homeostasis (balance).

Making sure our bodies run well and healthy even at the cellular level

Each organ system helps by getting us the nutrients we need to stay healthy

Digestive System

Main Function: Disassembles food and absorbs nutrients for the body to function.

Key Processes:

Breaks down food and drinks into macromolecules (proteins, fats, carbohydrates).

Absorbs nutrients (like vitamins, minerals, and energy) into the bloodstream.

Excess or unabsorbed material is turned into feces (poop).

Urinary / Excretory system

Main Function: Purifies the blood by filtering out wastes and transports waste out of the body.

Key Processes:

Filters blood to remove waste products and excess substances.

Converts filtered blood into liquid waste (urine/pee).

Does not work directly with the digestive system.

Reproductive System

Male System:

Main Function: Produces sperm and delivers them to the female reproductive system for potential fertilization.

Key Process:

Produces sex cells (sperm).

Transports sperm to the female reproductive system, where fertilization may occur.

Female System:

Main Function: Produces eggs and provides an environment for nurturing a developing embryo and fetus if fertilization occurs.

Key Process:

Produces sex cells (eggs).

Provides an environment for fertilization and fetal development if pregnancy occurs.

General Note: The reproductive system is the same system for both genders but functions differently based on gender (male vs. female).

Integumentary System

Main Function: Provides protection by forming a barrier between the inside and outside of the body.

Key Functions:

Protects against pathogens, UV light, and other environmental threats.

Aids in secretion and transport of molecules (like sweat).

Components:

Hair, Skin, Nails.

Skeletal System

Main Functions:

Supports and protects the body and internal organs.

Manufactures blood cells.

Provides a surface for muscle attachment, creating a foundation for movement.

Key Points:

Skeletal muscles attach to bones to allow movement.

Protects softer organs (e.g., brain, heart).

Supports the body’s internal structure.

Muscular System

Main Function: Generates force through contraction, enabling movement of the body, blood, food, and other substances throughout the body.

Types of Muscles:

Skeletal Muscle: Attached to bones, allowing voluntary movement.

Cardiac Muscle: Found in the heart, responsible for pumping blood.

Smooth Muscle: Lines internal organs, controlling involuntary movements (e.g., digestion, blood flow).

5. Cellular Energy

Energy Basics

ATP: Main energy carrier.

ADP: Low-energy form.

Laws of Thermodynamics: Energy cannot be created/destroyed, it transfers.

Light Energy----- Chemical Energy

(1. Converting Energy CONVERTING FORMS OF ENERGY (photosynthesis) 2. to produce sugar)

Chemical Energy ------- Kinetic Energy

Eat Food, CONVERTING FORMS OF ENERGY, 2. Able to ride the bike)

Cellular Respiration

4 Steps:

(TAKE IN) Oxygen + Sugar (Input) ------- (BREATHE OUT) Carbon dioxide needed for cellular respiration + water + energy (ATP)

Glycolysis: Breaks down glucose.

Cellular Respiration is the powerhouse of the cell and most of it takes place in the inner membrane creating electron transport chain that enables ATP

6. Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems

Cardiovascular System

The circulatory system brings O 2, nutrients,
hormones, etc. throughout and removes waste like
CO 2 from the body

Parts: Heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), blood.

Heart: Atria, ventricles, valves.

Blood Flow: Oxygenated vs. deoxygenated blood.

Blood Components: Red blood cells (carry oxygen), white blood cells (immune), platelets (clotting), plasma.

Respiratory System

Gas Exchange: Oxygen in, carbon dioxide out.

Upper vs. Lower Respiratory Tract: (Upper is to get air into body and out of your body which has direct contact with outside) (Lower is directed or related into gas exchange)

2 lungs exact location of gas exchange in our bodies.

Nose, pharynx, mouth, larynx (upper)

trachea, bronchi, lungs. (lower)

Alveoli: Pit pockets that make up the surface area for gas exchange

Bronchiole: Tube

7. Plant Physiology

P What is a Plant?

Definition: Plants are multicellular, terrestrial organisms that make their own food chemically via photosynthesis, unlike animals that must eat other organisms for nutrition.

Focus: The lecture focuses on angiosperms (flowering plants), which are the most common type of plant.

Photosynthesis

Process Overview: Photosynthesis is a complex process where plants capture sunlight to create sugars (food). While plants do not perform photosynthesis to produce oxygen for us, oxygen is a byproduct of the process.

Chemical Equation:
CO₂ + H₂O (+sunlight) → Sugar + O₂

Location: Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells, primarily in the leaves (where most chloroplasts are found). It is divided into two main stages:

Light (Photo) Reactions: Occur in the thylakoids of the chloroplasts and require sunlight.

Dark (Synthesis) Reactions (Calvin Cycle): Occur in the stroma and do not require sunlight. These reactions synthesize sugars.

What Happens in Each Part of Photosynthesis?

Light Reactions: Light energy is captured by chlorophyll and converted into chemical energy (ATP and NADPH).

Dark Reactions (Calvin Cycle): ATP and NADPH produced from the light reactions are used to convert carbon dioxide into sugars.

Relationship to Cellular Respiration

Photosynthesis vs. Cellular Respiration: Both processes involve energy transfers. Photosynthesis stores energy in sugar molecules, which are later broken down during cellular respiration to produce ATP, a usable energy form for the plant.

Photosynthesis: Converts light energy into chemical energy (sugars).

Cellular Respiration: Breaks down sugars to release energy (ATP).

Shared Ingredients: Both processes use oxygen (O₂) and carbon dioxide (CO₂), but in opposite roles.

Photosynthesis: Uses CO₂ and H₂O to make sugars and releases O₂.

Cellular Respiration: Uses O₂ to break down sugars and releases CO₂.

Tissue Types in Plants

Vascular Tissue: Includes xylem (moves water up from roots) and phloem (transports sugars from leaves to other plant parts).

Other Plant Tissues:

Ground Tissue: Provides support, storage, and photosynthesis.

Dermal Tissue: Protects the plant.

What Do Plants Need to Survive?

Basic Requirements:

Sunlight (for photosynthesis)

Water

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) (from air)

Minerals from soil are also essential, though plants can grow without soil if given the necessary mineral supplements (as shown in the tomato plant example).

Plant Parts and Their Functions

Roots: Absorb water, minerals, and oxygen; anchor the plant; store sugars (especially important in winter when photosynthesis is not happening).

Stems: Contain vascular tissue to transport water, sugars, and minerals; provide structural support.

Leaves: The main site for photosynthesis, where chloroplasts capture light energy.

Mycorrhizal Connections (Symbiotic Relationship)

Mycorrhizal Networks: Plants can communicate with each other through their roots, utilizing fungi (mycorrhizae). These networks, called the "Wood Wide Web," allow plants to exchange information about their health and send nutrients to one another.

Photo/L ight Reactions vs. Synthesis/Dark Reactions

Light Reactions: Occur in the thylakoids of the chloroplasts, require sunlight, and convert light energy into chemical energy (ATP, NADPH).

Dark Reactions (Calvin Cycle): Occur in the stroma of the chloroplasts, do not require sunlight, and synthesize sugars from CO₂.

Summary

Photosynthesis is a key process for plants, using sunlight to produce sugars. Oxygen is a byproduct, but plants do not perform photosynthesis specifically to create oxygen for us.

The primary locations of photosynthesis are the chloroplasts within leaves (thylakoids for light reactions, stroma for dark reactions).

Plants need sunlight, water, and CO₂ to survive. They also rely on mycorrhizal networks to exchange nutrients and information with fungi and other plants.

Note