I. The Age of Absolutism (1600s-1700s)

A) The Age of Absolutism was the period in European history when nations were governed (ruled) by absolute monarchs.

B) The term “monarch” means “king.” Absolute monarchs were kings who had total control over

the nations that they ruled.

C) Key characteristics/features of absolute monarchs:

1) Absolute monarchs centralized political control, which means that they did not share

power with anyone else.

2) Absolute monarchs believed in Divine Right, which was the idea that kings received

their power to rule directly from God.

3) Absolute monarchs believed that their power was unlimited. They made laws without

the consent (approval) of the people.

D) Some important absolute monarchs include:

1) Peter the Great- He was the absolute monarch of Russia. He also westernized Russia,

which means that he imitated the customs and traditions of countries in Western

Europe in order to strengthen his nation.

2) Louis XIV- He was the absolute monarch of France.

3) Philip II- He was the absolute monarch of Spain.

4) Henry VIII- He was the absolute monarch of England.

5) Suleiman the Magnificent- He was the absolute monarch of the Ottoman Empire.

6) NOTE: In addition to knowing that these men were absolute monarchs, the Regents

also wants you to know that Peter the Great, Louis XIV, and Suleiman the Magnificent

helped expand (enlarge) the territory of their nations by taking over neighboring lands.

TOPIC: THE INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS OF EUROPE

I. Scientific Revolution (1500s-1600s)

A) The Scientific Revolution was a sudden and dramatic change in how people viewed the world.

B) During the Scientific Revolution, science and reason (logic) were used to explain how the world

worked. People no longer turned only to the Bible and the Catholic Church for answers.

C) Key people of the Scientific Revolution:

1) Copernicus- Astronomer who developed the Heliocentric Theory- The idea that the

planets revolve around the sun.

2) Galileo Galilei- Astronomer who proved that Copernicus was correct. He was put on

trial by the Catholic Church because his ideas contradicted (went against) its teachings.

3) Sir Isaac Newton- Mathematician and astronomer who developed calculus and the

theory of gravity.

4) Johannes Kepler- Astronomer who helped discover how planets move.

D) Key effects (results) of the Scientific Revolution:

1) It resulted in the spread of new ideas throughout Europe.

2) It challenged the traditional authority (power) of the Catholic Church since European

scientists proved that many Church teachings were incorrect.

3) The new ideas of this period directly led to the Enlightenment (SEE NEXT TOPIC).

II. The Enlightenment (1700s)

A) The Enlightenment was the period in European history when reason (logic) was used to

understand and improve society. In fact, the Enlightenment is often called “The Age of Reason.”

B) Key ideas of the Enlightenment:

1) Enlightenment philosophers believed that society could be improved by using reason

(logic) and natural law (universal rules that are always true).

2) Enlightenment philosophers believed that governments receive their authority (power)

from the people (NOT from God).

3) Enlightenment philosophers believed in democracy (a gov’t where the people have a say).

4) NOTE: The Regents likes you to know that the Scientific Revolution and the

Enlightenment both encouraged the spread of new ideas and the use of reason.

C) Key people of the Enlightenment:

1) John Locke- He believed that all people have natural rights (the right to life, liberty, and

property). He also said that people have the right to overthrow governments that fail to protect these rights

2) Baron de Montesquieu- In order to prevent kings from being too strong, he believed that power in government should be divided into three branches (executive, legislative, judicial) so that there is a separation of powers and a system of checks and balances.

3) Voltaire- He believed that everyone is entitled to freedom of speech and freedom of religion.

4) Rousseau- He believed that society is a social contract (an agreement in which all people agree to work for the common good of society).

D) Key effects (results) of the Enlightenment:

1) Since Enlightenment philosophers believed that people can overthrow unfair governments, the Enlightenment helped cause political revolutions in France, Latin America, and the United States (SEE NEXT TOPIC BELOW).

2) Enlightened Despots- These were European kings and queens who believed in Enlightenment ideas and ruled using Enlightenment principles (ideas).

TOPIC: POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS I.

Introduction to Political Revolutions

A) The term “political” means “government.” A political revolution is an event in which the people of a country overthrow an existing government and create a new government.

II. The English Revolution/Glorious Revolution (1689)

A) The English Revolution (also called the Glorious Revolution) is the event in which the people of England successfully limited the power of their monarchs (kings).

B) The English Revolution took place because people in England believed that the absolute monarchs of England were unfair and had too much power.

C) Key effects (results) of the English Revolution/Glorious Revolution:

1) England’s government became a limited (or constitutional) monarchy- This is a form of government in which the power of monarchs (kings) is limited (decreased) by written laws.

Below is a list of laws that each limited the power of the English king in some way:

a) The Magna Carta-first written constitution in European history. It established the principle of respecting the law, limiting government power and protecting human rights.

b) The Petition of Right-The Petition of Right, passed on 7 June 1628, is an English constitutional document setting out specific individual protections against the state, reportedly of equal value to Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights 1689.

c) The English Bill of Rights

d) Habeas Corpus

e) NOTE: As a result of these laws, English kings had to share power with Parliament (the lawmaking body of the English government that represents the people).

III. The French Revolution and Napoleon (1789-1815)

A) The French Revolution was the event in which the people of France overthrew their king (Louis XVI) and fought for more rights.

B) Key causes of (reasons for) the French Revolution:

1) French society was divided into three estates (social classes). The people of the Third Estate were mostly peasants. They were angry that they had very few rights and paid the highest taxes (even though they had the least money).

2) France was ruled by absolute monarchs. The French people believed that these kings abused their power and denied (took away) the rights of the people.

3) The ideas of the Enlightenment inspired the French people to overthrow their unfair kings and to create a new government that protected their rights.

4) France was in an economic crisis- The kings spent too much money and put France in debt.

C) Key events of the French Revolution:

1) Declaration of the Rights of Man- This was a document written during the French Revolution that gave equal rights to the men of France and created a fair system of taxation.

2) Reign of Terror- This was an event where the leaders of the French Revolution executed thousands of people that they believed were loyal to the king. The Jacobins were the radical (extreme) group leading this event and Robespierre was the leader of the Jacobins.

D) Key effects (results) of the French Revolution:

1) King Louis XVI of France was executed by Robespierre and the Jacobins.

2) The middle class of France gained more power and rights.

E) Napoleon Bonaparte

1) Napoleon Bonaparte was the ruler who came to power at the end of the French Revolution.

2) He expanded (enlarged) French territory by conquering neighboring lands in Europe. By doing so, he made French people feel nationalism (pride in their country).

3) NOTE: The Regents wants you to know that Napoleon was finally defeated in 1812 because he made a big error (mistake): He invaded Russia during the winter and the freezing climate (weather) of Russia killed thousands of his soldiers. The same mistake was later made by Hitler during WWII.(French Invasion of Russia).

IV. The Latin American Revolutions (1800-1830)

A) The Latin American Revolutions were the events where the colonies of Latin America (Central America, South America, and the Caribbean) fought to gain independence (self-government) from Spain, Portugal, and France.

B) Key causes of (reasons for) the Latin American Revolutions:

1) The governments of Latin America were controlled by Peninsulares (people born in Spain and Portugal) who treated the people of Latin America poorly. Creoles (Europeans born in Latin America), Mestizos (mixed Europeans/Native Americans), Native Americans, and African slaves demanded more rights.

2) The ideas of the Enlightenment inspired the Latin Americans to fight for independence (self-government) and overthrow their unfair governments.

3) The American Revolution and the French Revolution inspired Latin Americans to fight for independence (self-government) and overthrow their unfair governments.

C) Below is a list of leaders that helped gain independence (self-government) for the colonies of Latin America:

1) Simon Bolivar-Simón Bolívar was a Venezuelan soldier and statesman who played a central role in the South American independence movement.

2) Jose de San Martin- Argentine soldier, statesman, and national hero who helped lead the revolutions against Spanish rule in Argentina (1812), Chile (1818), and Peru (1821)

3) Miguel Hidalgo-the Mexican priest who led the rebellion against Spanish rule in 1810.

Haitian Revolution- The Haitian Revolution ( or ;) was a successful insurrection by self-liberated slaves against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue, now the sovereign state of Haiti.

4) Toussaint L’Ouverture-L'Ouverture was a former Haitian slave who led the only successful slave revolt in modern history. Standing steadfastly, he fought to end slavery and gain Haiti’s independence from European powers, France and Spain.

5) NOTE: All of these men are considered nationalists since they loved their nations and wanted to free them from European control.

D) NOTE: After gaining independence, attempts were made to unify (combine) the different areas of Latin America in order to form one country. These attempts failed because Latin America has many natural boundaries (i.e.- Andes Mountains, Amazon Rainforest, etc.) that prevent communication between regions.

I. The Industrial Revolution (1700s-1800s)

A) The Industrial Revolution was the change from producing goods by hand to producing goods with machines in factories.

B) The Industrial Revolution started in Great Britain (England) because it had many natural resources (i.e.- coal, iron, tin, lead, waterways) that are necessary to produce and transport goods. In other words, Great Britain had favorable geography.

C) Key effects (results) of the Industrial Revolution:

1) Industrialization- Machines were used to produce goods in factories.

2) Urbanization- The growth of cities. People came to urban (city) areas to get jobs in factories. Many cities had severe pollution from the smoke that came out of factories.

3) Bad working conditions- Workers in factories worked in dangerous conditions for long hours and low pay. Young children were frequently hired and abused in these factories.

4) Formation of Labor Unions- Workers formed labor unions (organizations of workers) that fought to improve the pay and working conditions of workers.

5) Legislation- Governments eventually passed laws to set minimum wage and end child labor.

D) Laissez Faire Capitalism (Market Economy)- This was the economic system that was used during the Industrial Revolution (and that is still used in most of the world today). It was based on the following ideas:

1) Businesses and factories should be owned by individuals (NOT the government).

2) Business decisions should be made by Individuals (the government should NOT interfere).

3) Prices should be set by individuals (NOT the government) based on supply and demand.

E) Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels

1) These two men believed that laissez faire capitalism was bad. They argued that it allowed greedy factory owners to exploit (take advantage) of poor factory workers. They wrote a book called the “Communist Manifesto” that said the following:

a) All of history has been about class struggles (“Haves” vs. “Have-Nots”).

b) During the Industrial Revolution, wealthy and greedy factory owners (Bourgeoisie) were taking advantage of the poor factory workers (the Proletariat) to earn money.

c) The Proletariat should rise up, overthrow the bourgeoisie in a violent revolution, and eliminate laissez faire capitalism.

d) The Proletariat could then create a new kind of society where work and wealth was shared equally be everyone (and where social classes no longer existed).

2) NOTE: The ideas of Marx and Engels eventually became the foundation (basis) of Communism. Countries that became Communist (like the Soviet Union and China) were inspired by the writings of Marx and Engels.

I. Introduction to Nationalism

A) Nationalism is a feeling of love, loyalty, and devotion to one’s country. Someone who feels this love, loyalty, and devotion is known as a nationalist.

B) Nationalism usually develops in areas where people share a common language, culture, and history.

II. Unification of Italy and Germany (1870-1871)

A) Up until 1870, both Italy and Germany were NOT yet countries. Instead, they were areas that were divided up into many different states, each with its own government.

B) Due to feelings of nationalism, the Italian-speaking people of Italy wanted to combine their separate states to form one united nation with one government. Similarly, the German-speaking people of Germany wanted to combine their separate states to form one united nation with one government.

C) Unification of Italy- Italy successfully combined its separate states to form one united nation in 1870. This was achieved due to the efforts of 3 devoted nationalists:

1) Giuseppe Garibaldi

2) Giuseppe Mazzini

3) Count Camillo di Cavour

D) Unification of Germany- Germany successfully combined its separate states to form one united nation in 1871 due to the efforts of one man:

1) Otto von Bizmarck- He used a “blood and iron” policy (3 wars) to unify German lands.

III. Nationalism in Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire

A) Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire were both large empires that ruled over many diverse (different) ethnic groups.

B) Due to feelings of nationalism, the ethnic minorities of these lands wanted to gain independence (self-government) and form their own nations.

C) Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire were eventually broken up due to nationalist movements by these different ethnic groups.

IV. Nationalism in Ireland '

A) In 1801, Great Britain (England) took over Ireland.

B) Potato Famine

1) 1845-1850- About 1 million Irish people died of famine (starvation) when the potato crop failed to grow.

2) Over 1 million Irish people migrated (moved) to the United States to escape the famine and find more opportunities.

C) Nationalism

1) Due to feelings of nationalism, many people in Ireland did not want to be ruled by Great Britain. They wanted independence (self-government).

2) 1921- Southern Ireland (mostly Catholic) gained independence from Great Britain. Northern Ireland (mostly Protestant) remained part of Great Britain.

TOPIC: IMPERIALISM I. Introduction to Imperialism

A) Imperialism (also called colonization) is when a strong country conquers and takes over a weaker country. The area that is taken over is known as a colony.

B) During the 19th century (1800s), many European nations (also called Western nations) such as Great Britain, France, Germany, and Italy took over lands throughout Africa and Asia.

C) Causes of (reasons for) imperialism- The European nations imperialized/colonized lands in Africa and Asia for several important reasons:

1) Europeans wanted raw materials/natural resources (like coal, tin, iron) in order to make goods in their factories.

2) “White Man’s Burden”- This was a racist poem that encouraged Europeans to civilize (help improve) the people that they took over by teaching them European customs and religious beliefs (like Christianity). The poem referred to the people of Asia and Africa as “half devil” and “half child.”

3) Social Darwinism- This was the idea that it was natural for strong countries (like the European nations) to take over weaker countries (like nations in Africa and Asia).

II. Imperialism in India, China, and Africa (1800s-1914)

A) Effects (results) of imperialism- The Europeans generally had a very negative impact on the regions that they colonized (took over) in India, China, and Africa:

1) “Scramble for Africa”- Over 90% of Africa was taken over by European countries that scrambled (raced) to take over the continent.

2) China- After the British began smuggling opium (an addictive drug) into China, the Chinese fought back in the famous Opium Wars. After being defeated, China was carved up into spheres of influence (areas where trade was controlled by different European nations).

3) India- India was taken over by Great Britain (England) and ruled for almost 200 years.

B) The people of Africa and Asia did not like being ruled by European nations. As a result, they fought many wars to kick out the Europeans (also called Westerners) and gain independence (self-government):

1) Sepoy Mutiny- Rebellion in which India tried (but failed) to gain independence from Great Britain (England).

2) Boxer Rebellion- Rebellion in which China tried (but failed) to gain independence from the various European (Western) nations that controlled them.

III. Imperialism in Japan

A) From 1600-1854, Japan was largely isolated and wanted little contact with the rest of the world.(Tokugawa shogunate)

B) 1854- Commodore Matthew Perry of the United States sailed into Japan in order to open up the country to trade. We wanted to do business with Japan.

C) Meiji Restoration (1868-1912)

1) This is the period in Japanese history when Japan was ruled by Emperor Meiji.

2) NOTE: During this period, Japan began a rapid (fast) program of modernization and westernization.

3) Modernization- Japan industrialized (built factories, machines, roads, communications).

4) Westernization- Japan adopted the customs and techniques of Western countries (i.e.- Europe and the United States). Japan changed its government, military, education system, and technology to make it more like those of Europe and the United States.

D) NOTE: As result of the changes made during the Meiji Period, Japan became a powerful and modern industrial country. Instead of being taken over by Europeans or the United States (the way India, China, and Africa were), Japan actually started to take over (imperialize) other countries.

E) Japanese Imperialism

1) Now that Japan had factories, it needed natural resources/raw materials (like coal, tin, iron, and lead) to make products.

2) Since Japan had very few natural resources of its own, Japan took over Korea and part of China to gain these resources

I. World War I (1914-1918)

A) World War I was a global military conflict that was fought mainly in Europe.

B) Causes of (reasons for) World War I- The war took place for several important reasons.

NOTE: You can remember the causes by just thinking of the word (M.A.I.N.):

1) Militarism- Countries in Europe (especially Germany and Britain) built up their armies and their supply of weapons in the late 1800s.

2) Alliances- Countries in Europe divided themselves into two military alliances (This alliance system increased tension in Europe.

Triple Alliance - Germany, Austria Hungary, and italy

Triple Entente- U.S, USSR, France

3) Imperialism- Countries in Europe competed with each other to take over lands in Africa, Asia, and the Balkans (Southeastern Europe). This competition increased tension.

4) Nationalism- Ethnic groups in the Balkans (Southeastern Europe) wanted to gain independence (self-government) from Austria-Hungary and they were willing to fight for it.

5) NOTE: World War I started when Archduke Ferdinand (the heir to the throne of Austria Hungary) was assassinated by Slavic nationalists in the Balkans.

C) Treaty of Versailles- This was the Treaty that ended World War I. NOTE: The key thing to remember is that the treaty severely punished Germany in a number of ways:

1) Germany was forced to accept blame (guilt) for causing World War I.

2) Germany was forced to pay 30 billion dollars in war reparations (money for damages caused during the war).

3) Germany had to reduce (decrease) the size of its military.

4) Germany was forced to give up some of its lands.

5) NOTE: The Treaty of Versailles was so harsh on Germany that it eventually helped bring Hitler (and the Nazis) to power and it helped cause World War II.

D) Key effects (results) of World War I:

1) In order to provide the people of Eastern Europe with self-determination (the right of ethnic groups to create their own governments), Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire were broken apart and much of the land was used to create new nations in Eastern Europe (such as Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia).

2) Armenian Massacre- During World War I, the Turks of the Ottoman Empire attempted to kill all of the Armenians that lived in their territory.

NOTE: This event is an example of genocide- the attempted extermination of an entire ethnic group. Genocide is considered to be the ultimate violation of human rights.

3) Women in Europe eventually gained suffrage (the right to vote) since they had helped out during World War I by working in factories.

mobilization-the action of a country or its government preparing and organizing troops for active service:

TOPIC: THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION (BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION)

I. The Russian Revolution (also called the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917

A) The Russian Revolution was an event where the people of Russia overthrew their Czar (king) and created a new government.

B) Causes of (reasons for) the Russian Revolution- Like all political (government) revolutions, the Russian Revolution took place because the people of Russia were unhappy with their government. People were unhappy for several reasons:

1) World War I- Russia suffered many casualties (injuries and death) in the war. World War I also created food shortages at home (people were starving).

2) Czar Nicholas II- He was the ruler of Russia at the time. People thought that he abused his power by denying (taking away) the rights of the people.

C) Bolsheviks

1) This was the radical (extreme) group that was leading the Russian Revolution.

2) The leader of the Bolsheviks was a man named Vladimir Lenin.

3) Lenin and the Bolsheviks gained the support of the Russian people by promising to provide them with “Peace, Land, and Bread.” This slogan meant that they would take Russia out of WWI, give land to peasants, and feed everyone.

D) Effects (results) of the Russian/Bolshevik Revolution:

1) Czar Nicholas II was executed.

2) Lenin and the Bolsheviks came to power in Russia.

3) Russia became a Communist nation.

TOPIC: NATIONALISM BETWEEN WORLD WARS I.

Nationalism Between World Wars (1919-1939)

A) Turkey

1) After World War I, the Ottoman Empire was broken apart. All that remained of Ottoman lands was the country of Turkey.

2) Kemal Ataturk- He was the first president of Turkey. He is considered a nationalist because he made many changes in order to strengthen Turkey:

a) Westernization- He imitated the customs and traditions of European countries (for example, people in Turkey were required to dress like Europeans).

b) Democracy- He helped establish democracy in Turkey by giving people a voice in government (even women were given the right to vote).

c) NOTE: Many Muslims resented Kemal Ataturk since he eliminated Islamic laws and created secular (non-religious) laws.

C) India

1) By the time World War I ended in 1919, India had been a colony of Great Britain (England) for almost 200 years. After World War I, India began to increase its demands for independence (self-government).

2) Mohandas Gandhi

a) He is the famous nationalist leader of India who fought for independence from Britain using only non-violent methods (also called civil disobedience or passive resistance).

b) Salt March- Famous event where Gandhi protested British taxes on salt by leading a peaceful march to the sea to make his own salt.

c) Boycott- Gandhi encouraged the people of India to boycott (stop buying) British products (like clothing) that were sold in India.

TOPIC: TOTALITARIANISM BETWEEN WORLD WARS I.

Introduction to Totalitarian Dictatorships

1) Totalitarian dictatorships are governments where one ruler has complete control over ALL aspects of life within a country. They control the political, social, and economic features of a nation.

B) After World War I, totalitarian dictatorships were established in 3 countries under 3 men:

1) The Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin.

2) Italy under Benito Mussolini.

3) Germany under Adolf Hitler.

C) All 3 totalitarian dictatorships had a number of characteristics (traits) in common:

1) Censorship- They ended freedom of speech in their countries. The governments strictly controlled the media (i.e.- newspapers, radio, and television) of their nation.

2) One political party- Only the political party of the dictators was allowed to exist. Stalin’s political party was called the Communists. Mussolini’s political party was called the Fascists. Hitler’s political party was called the Nazis.

3) People were expected to put the needs of the state (their country) before their own needs.

4) They eliminated opposition (people against them) by using a secret police force.

5) They used propaganda- Messages that were meant to influence the way people thought.

D) NOTE: The Regents wants you to know that both Hitler and Mussolini were able to come to power because Germany and Italy were facing severe economic problems such as inflation (rising prices) and unemployment (many people had no job). The people of Germany and Italy believed that Hitler and Mussolini could solve these problems.

II. Totalitarianism under Joseph Stalin

A) Joseph Stalin was the totalitarian dictator of the Soviet Union (Russia). The Regents wants you to know the following about him:

1) He established a Command (or Communist) economy- This is an economic system where the government (instead of individuals) owns businesses, makes business decisions, and sets prices.

2) Five-Year Plans- Stalin tried to modernize (update) the industry (factories) and agriculture (farms) of the Soviet Union by setting economic goals every five years.

3) Collectivization- Stalin took over the individual farms that people owned and forced people to live on large government farms (called collective farms) that were owned by the government.

4) NOTE: Stalin took away food from the people of the Ukraine (an area of the Soviet Union) when they resisted (fought against) his program of collectivization. Millions of peasants in the Ukraine died of forced starvation.(The Holodomor).

TOPIC: WORLD WAR II

II. Events leading up to World War II

A) Japanese Aggression

1) Japan took over Korea, Manchuria (northeastern China), and much of Southeast Asia in order to gain natural resources/raw materials (like coal and iron).

2) Rape of Nanking- Brutal event in which the Japanese raped and killed Chinese civilians (non-soldiers) in the city of Nanking. It was a major human rights violation.

B) Italian Aggression- Benito Mussolini of Italy invaded and took over Ethiopia (country in Africa).

C) German Aggression- Adolf Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles in a number of ways:

1) Hitler built up the German military and drafted soldiers into the army.

2) Hitler placed soldiers in the Rhineland (an area between Germany and France).

3) Hitler took over the neighboring country of Austria.

4) Hitler took over the neighboring country of Czechoslovakia.

D) NOTE: World War II took place mainly because very little was done early on to stop Hitler, Mussolini, or Japan. For example:

1) The League of Nations was an international organization created after World War I in order to prevent war. It failed to stop Hitler, Mussolini, or Japan from being aggressive.

2) Appeasement- This is a policy where an aggressive nation is given what they want by other nations in order to avoid war. At the Munich Conference in Germany, Great Britain appeased Hitler by giving him control over and the Nazis tried to kill all Jews in Europe. 6 million Jews and 6 million non-Jews were killed during this event.

2) The Holocaust is an example of genocide- the attempt to exterminate (kill off) an entire group of people. All genocides are considered human rights violations. Czechoslovakia. This led Hitler to demand even more land.

E) NOTE: World War II started when Hitler invaded Poland in 1939. Three days later, Britain and France declared war on Germany. III. Key Events of World War II

A) Invasion of Poland- This event started WWII. Poland was quickly defeated by Germany because Poland lacks natural boundaries (i.e.- it has very flat plains that were easy to conquer).

B) Pearl Harbor- Japan launched a surprise attack against the United States. This event brought us into World War II.

c) NOTE: The Regents wants you to know that Hitler failed to conquer Russia (the Soviet Union) at the Battle of Stalingrad because of the harsh climate (severe winter) and large size of the nation. The same was true of Napoleon Bonaparte 130 years earlier. Geography has always been Russia’s best defense.

D) D-Day Invasion 1944- This was the beginning of the final Allied push against Germany. It resulted in the eventual defeat of Germany.

E) Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 1945 - This was the final event of World War II. The U.S. dropped two atomic bombs on Japan. Japan surrendered soon after.

F) The Holocaust

1) This was the event during World War II in which Hitler and the Nazis tried to kill all Jews in Europe. 6 million Jews and 6 million non-Jews were killed during this event.

2) The Holocaust is an example of genocide- the attempt to exterminate (kill off) an entire group of people. All genocides are considered human rights violations.

IV. Effects (Results) of World War II

A) Formation of the United Nations

1) The United Nations is the organization that was created after World War II in order to solve international problems (like poverty and disease) and prevent future wars.

2) 191 nations (almost the entire world) currently belong to the United Nations.

3) The United Nations is made of 6 main bodies. 4 of them are:

a) The Security Council- Keeps peace between nations.

b) International Court of Justice- Settles disputes between countries.

c) General Assembly- Votes on key policies of the United Nations.

d) Secretariat- Responsible for day-to-day administration of the United Nations.

4) Declaration of Human Rights- This was a document created by the United Nations that lists the rights that ALL people should have within their nations. This includes the right to freedom of speech, the right to life, and the right to participate in government.

B) Nuremberg Trials

1) This is the court case where the surviving Nazis who helped Hitler carry out the Holocaust were put on trial.

2) 19 Nazi leaders were executed or sentenced to imprisonment as a result of “crimes against humanity” (i.e.- genocide).

3) NOTE: The Nuremberg Trials are important because they demonstrated that individuals in government could be held accountable (responsible) for their actions.

TOPIC: THE COLD WAR I. The Cold War (1945-1991)

A) The Cold War was a 50 year struggle between the United States (a democratic nation) and the Soviet Union (a communist nation) after World War II. It is called a “cold” war because the United States and the Soviet Union never directly fought each other.

B) Key events and characteristics/features of the Cold War:

1) After World War II, the Soviet Union took over the small nations of Eastern Europe and turned them into communist satellites (i.e.- nations dominated by the Soviet Union).

2) “Iron Curtain”- This was a term used by Winston Churchill to describe the imaginary line dividing the democratic countries of Western Europe from the communist countries of Eastern Europe.

3) Containment- This was the policy used by the United States in which it attempted to stop the spread of communism.

Two examples of containment were:

a) Truman Doctrine- The United States gave $400 million in economic and military aid to Greece and Turkey to help them defeat communist groups within their countries.

b) Marshall Plan- The United States gave $13 billion to the countries of Western Europe to help them rebuild after World War II.

4) Crisis in Germany

a) After World War II, Germany was divided into 2 nations. West Germany became a democratic nation. East Germany became a communist nation controlled by the Soviet Union.

b) Berlin Wall- Concrete wall built by the Communists around the city of West Berlin to prevent people in East Germany from fleeing to West Germany.

c) Berlin Airlift- Event in which the United States, Britain, and France flew in supplies to the people of West Berlin after Stalin set up a blockade.

5) Military alliances- Both the United States and Soviet Union formed their own military alliances in order to be prepared for a possible war:

a) NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)- This was a military alliance between the United States, Canada, and the democratic nations of Western Europe. The nations of this alliance agreed than an attack on one nation in the alliance was considered to be an attack on all of the nations of the alliance.

b) Warsaw Pact- This was a military alliance between the Soviet Union and the other Communist nations of Eastern Europe.

6) Hungarian Revolution of 1956- When Hungary (a communist satellite controlled by the Soviet Union) tried to break away from Soviet control, the Soviet Union sent in the army and repressed (ended) the rebellion.

7) Arms Race- The United States and Soviet Union competed to build up the largest supply of nuclear weapons.

Juan Peron- dictator of Argentina in 1946

The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo marched silenty every week in Buenos Aires for over thrity years, holding pictures of their missing children due to the dirty war

Argentina then became democratic but economic hardships persisted

8) Cuban Missile Crisis

a) Began when the United States discovered that the Soviet Union was building missile bases in Cuba (a new Communist nation) and pointing nuclear missiles at the United States.

b) The crisis ended when the Soviet Union agreed to remove the missiles.

c) This event is the closest the world has ever come to nuclear war between countries.

9) NOTE: During the Cold War, Korea and Vietnam (two nations in East Asia) were each divided into 2 separate countries. One side of each country became communist and the other side became democratic. The Korean War and the Vietnam War were the result of this situation. Today, North Korea is still communist and South Korea is still democratic. After the Vietnam War, all of Vietnam became one united communist nation.

TOPIC: ECONOMIC ISSUES AFTER WORLD WAR II I.

Economic Cooperation

A) After World War II, various regions of the world started to create organizations that were designed to increase trade and promote economic prosperity (wealth). Two of these organizations include:

1) European Union (E.U.)- This is an organization that now includes 27 countries in Europe. They have decreased tariffs (taxes) and now use a single form of currency (money) called “The Euro.”

2) North American Free Trade Agreement (N.A.F.T.A.)- This is an organization that includes the United States, Canada, and Mexico. By decreasing tariffs (taxes), this organization has increased trade between the 3 main countries of North America.

3) NOTE: These 2 organizations are examples of economic cooperation and interdependence (countries working together and relying on each other).

II. Oil Politics

A) Oil (also called petroleum) is among the world’s most important natural resources.

B) NOTE: Most of the world’s oil is located in the Middle East. Oil is the main reason why the Middle East has developed wealth and influence.

C) Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (O.P.E.C.)

1) This is an organization that was created by the main oil-producing countries of the world.

2) NOTE: Together, the member countries of O.P.E.C. determine the price of oil as well as production levels (i.e.- the amount of oil available to other countries).

TOPIC: COMMUNISM IN CHINA I.

Communism in China (1949-Present)

A) In 1949, after 22 years of civil war (war within China), China became the second country in the world (after the Soviet Union) to adopt communism.

B) Mao Zedong

1) He was the first Communist dictator of China.

2) NOTE: He gained the support of peasants because he promised to provide them with their own land once the Communists were brought to power.

3) Great Leap Forward

a) This was the attempt by Mao to modernize (update) the industrial (factory) and agricultural (farm) production of China.

b) Peasants in China were forced to move onto large government farms.

c) NOTE: This program was very similar to the Five Year Plans and Collectivization that took place in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin.

d) NOTE: Both Mao and Stalin had a command (or communist) economy in which the government owned businesses and farms and made all economic decisions.

4) Cultural Revolution- This was a period in China where Mao used violent young Communist soldiers (known as Red Guards) to eliminate all of the opposition (enemies) that he had within China.

C) Deng Xiaoping

1) He was the ruler in China after Mao Zedong.

2) Deng changed the economy of China from a command/communist economy (in which the government owns businesses) to a market/capitalist/free enterprise economy (in which individuals own businesses). This is the system that is largely used in China today.

3) Tiananmen Square Protests/Massacre (1989)

a) This was a series of protests where the Chinese peacefully demanded democratic reforms (changes)- They wanted more rights and a say in government.

b) Deng Xiaoping called in the army to repress (end) the protests. Hundreds of Chinese protesters were killed or arrested.

c) This proved that China’s government was not willing to make democratic changes.

D) Current issues in China

1) China controls the Buddhist region of Tibet. The people of Tibet want independence (self-government).

2) China denies its people human rights (such as freedom of speech and the right to vote).

3) In order to prevent overpopulation (China has 1.3 billion people), the government of China only allows each family to have one child.

TOPIC: DECOLONIZATION

I. Intro to Decolonization

A) Decolonization is the period after World War II in which the nations of Africa and Asia finally gained independence (self-government) from the European (Western) nations that controlled them.

II. Decolonization in India (1948)

A) After World War II, India gained independence (self-government) from Great Britain (England). This was largely due to the efforts of Mohandas Gandhi (DISCUSSED EARLIER IN PACKET).

B) In order to prevent conflict (war) between Hindus and Muslims, the region that was controlled by Great Britain was divided into two separate countries:

1) India- Nation created for the Hindus of the region.

2) Pakistan- Nation created for the Muslims of the region.

3) NOTE: Despite the creation of two separate nations, there is still ethnic tension between Hindus and Muslims in the region. Kashmir is an area near India and Pakistan that both nations claim to control. The situation is dangerous since both India and Pakistan have nuclear weapons.

C) India after independence:

1) India established a democratic government.

2) India followed a policy of nonalignment (or neutrality) during the Cold War, which means that it did not take sides. It remained neutral.

3) Caste System- Although India’s constitution prevents discrimination against the lowest social classes (or castes) in India, there continues to be discrimination in rural (farming) areas since tradition remains strong there. Discrimination against untouchables (the lowest class/caste) is especially severe.

III. Decolonization in Africa (1945-1980)

A) Between 1945 and 1980, the many nations of Africa finally gained independence (self government) from the European (or Western) nations that controlled them.

B) Independence was achieved largely due to the efforts of nationalist leaders who led movements to gain self-government. Two leaders that fought to gain independence from Great Britain (England) include:

1) Jomo Kenyatta- Gained independence for Kenya. Viewed independence as the only option for Africans. Became president after independence

Mau Mau- secret society made up mostly of native Kenyan farmers forced out of the highlands by the British

2) Kwame Nkrumah- Gained independence for Ghana. 1947 worked to liberate the Gold Coast from the British . He organized strikes and boycotts and was often imprisoned by the British government.

C) South Africa after independence:

1) After independence, white Europeans still controlled the government of South Africa. They established the racist system known as apartheid.

2) Apartheid was the system of racial segregation that was used in South Africa from 1948 until 1990. Black South Africans were required to use separate bathrooms, attend separate schools, carry identification passbooks, and even go to separate beaches.( Similar to the Jim Crow Laws of the South which ended in 1965).

3) Nelson Mandela

a) Black South African nationalist leader who fought against Apartheid.

African National Congress-Political party aims to organize Black South Africans in the struggle for Civil rights.

b) He was imprisoned for 27 years by the white South African government.

c) Nelson Mandela became the first black president of South Africa after apartheid officially came to an end in 1990.

D) Rwanda after independence:

1) During the 1990s, there was serious ethnic conflict between two groups in the African nation of Rwanda: the Hutus and the Tutsis.

The Tutsis were favored by white Europeans(Belgians)

On April 6, 1994, a plane carrying Habyarimana and Burundi’s president Cyprien Ntaryamira was shot down over the capital city of Kigali, leaving no survivors. (It has never been conclusively determined who the culprits were. Some have blamed Hutu extremists, while others blamed leaders of the RPF.)

2) 1994- The Hutus slaughtered 800,000 Tutsis in only a few months. This was an example of genocide (the attempt to exterminate a group of people) and it was a major human rights violation.

IV. Decolonization in Southeast Asia (Cambodia and Vietnam)

A) Between 1953 and 1954, Cambodia and Vietnam both gained independence (self-government) from France.

B) Ho Chi Minh- Nationalist leader who led an 8-year war against France to gain independence for Vietnam.

C) Vietnam after independence:

1) Vietnam was divided into 2 countries: communist North Vietnam and democratic South Vietnam

2) After the Vietnam War, all of Vietnam was reunited to form one communist nation. Vietnam is still communist today.

D) Cambodia after independence

1) After independence, Cambodia was ruled by a Communist group called the Khmer Rouge.

2) Pol Pot

a) He was the leader of the Khmer Rouge and ruler of Cambodia from 1976-1979.

b) He was a brutal dictator who denied his people of human rights.

c) Genocide- Pol Pot executed 2 million people within his nation (almost 20% of the population). V. Nationalist leaders of Decolonization

A) NOTE: The Regents really wants you to know that many of the individuals discussed above are nationalist leaders since they were loyal and devoted to their people and their nation. These men include Mohandas Gandhi, Kwame Nkrumah, Jomo Kenyatta, Nelson Mandela, and Ho Chi Minh.

TOPIC: THE MIDDLE EAST AFTER WORLD WAR II

II. Islamic Fundamentalism

A) Islamic Fundamentalism is the belief that governments should create societies that are based firmly on the rules of Islam. Two countries that have established such societies in recent decades are Iran and Afghanistan.

B) Iranian Revolution (1979)

Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi- King of Iran embraced western governments and wealthy oil companies

Muslim Clerics

1) This event brought Ayatollah Khomeini (an Islamic religious leader) to power.

2) Iran is still a theocracy- A country that is ruled by religious leaders.

C) Taliban

1) The Taliban is an Islamic group that ruled Afghanistan from 1996-2001.

2) It created laws that were strictly based on Sharia (Islamic law).

D) NOTE: In countries that are based on Islamic Fundamentalism, women have very few rights. They cannot vote and are required to dress very conservatively (modestly) in public.

TOPIC: THE COLLAPSE OF COMMUNISM I.

The Collapse of Communism in the Soviet Union (1991)

A) Between 1989 and 1991, the Cold War ended and Communism disappeared from Europe.

B) Mikhail Gorbachev

1) He was the Soviet leader who helped bring an end to Communism in the Soviet Union.

2) Perestroika

a) This was a program in which Gorbachev changed the economy of the Soviet Union from a communist/command economy (where the government owns and operates businesses) to a market/capitalist/free enterprise economy (where individuals own and operate businesses.

3) Glasnost

a) This was a program in which Gorbachev allowed freedom of speech within the Soviet Union.

b) It was a major step towards democracy in the Soviet Union.

C) Boris Yeltsin

1) He was the first democratically elected president in the history of Russia

II. The Collapse of Communism in Germany (1989)

A) Throughout the Cold War, Germany had been divided into two nations: West Germany (a democratic country) and East Germany (a communist country controlled by the Soviet Union).

B) 1989- The Berlin Wall (the symbol of the Cold War) was finally torn down. This symbolized the end of the Cold War and the end of Communism.

C) 1990- West Germany and East Germany were reunited to form one democratic country

TOPIC: HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS I.

Human Rights Violations

A) Human rights are the basic rights that all human beings are supposed to have. Basic human rights include freedom of speech, freedom of religion, the right to vote, and the right to live.

B) Genocide- Genocide is an attempt to exterminate (kill off) a group of people. It is the ultimate violation of human rights. Examples include:

1) Armenian Massacre- The Turks of the Ottoman Empire murdered about one million Armenians during World War I.

2) Ukrainian Famine- Joseph Stalin (dictator of the Soviet Union) took away food from the people of the Ukraine, which resulted in the death of millions of people.

3) Holocaust- Hitler and the Nazis murdered 6 million Jews during World War II.

4) Rwanda- The Hutus killed almost one million Tutsis in 1994.

5) Cambodia- Pol Pot was the ruler of Cambodia who killed 2 million people within his nation.

6) Yugoslavia- Slobodan Milosevic was the Serbian ruler of Yugoslavia who violently attacked non-Serbs (especially Albanians) living in his lands.

TOPIC: ECONOMIC SYSTEMS I.

Economic Systems

A) An economic system is the way that a society produces, distributes, and uses goods and services. There are three main types of economic systems that the Regents might ask you about.

B) Traditional Economy

1) A traditional economy is based on barter (trade without using money) and subsistence agriculture (farming in which the crops are used only to feed the farmer and his family).

2) People have the same occupation (job) as their parents (usually related to farming).

3) Economic decisions are often influenced by tradition and religious beliefs.

C) Market Economy(Capitalism

1 ) Individuals (NOT the government) own businesses and make economic decisions.

2) Individuals (NOT the government) determine the price of goods based on supply and demand.

3) NOTE: The terms capitalism, laissez-faire, and free enterprise have the same meaning as market economy.

4) NOTE: Most of the world today (including the United States) uses a market economy.

D) Command Economy

1) The government (NOT individuals) own businesses and make economic decisions.

2) The government (NOT individuals) determines the price of goods. '

3) NOTE: Communist countries like the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin and China under Mao Zedong used a command economy.

TOPIC: RECENT ISSUES AND CONCERNS I.

Ethnic Conflicts

A) Currently, there are many areas of the world where there is tension between ethnic groups. Some examples include the following:

1) Palestinians are fighting the Jews for more control over the Holy Land in the Middle East.

2) Tibet is a Buddhist region that wants independence (self-government) from China.

3) Catholics and Protestants have fought for control of Northern Ireland.

4) Muslims in Pakistan and Hindus in India both claim control over the region called Kashmir.

5) Serbs, Croatians, and Muslims have battled for control over the Balkans (southeastern Europe).

6) The Kurds are a group of people who are scattered throughout areas of Turkey, Iraq, and Iran. They want to create their own nation called Kurdistan.

II. Environmental Problems

A) Ozone Layer

1) Small layer of gases in the atmosphere that absorbs the sun’s ultraviolet rays and protects us from skin cancer.

2) Currently being destroyed by chemicals due to pollution.

3) Demonstrates a need for stricter pollution laws throughout the world.

B) Acid Rain

1) Rain that contains chemicals due to pollution.

2) Demonstrates a need for stricter pollution laws throughout the world.

C) Deforestation

1) Elimination of rainforests in Brazil (Amazon Basin), Costa Rica, and the Congo (in Central Africa).

2) Are we destroying possible cures for cancer and AIDS?

D) Desertification

1) Change from arable (fertile) land to desert. Causes include deforestation and overgrazing.

2) Especially a concern in the Sahel (region south of the Sahara Desert in Africa).

E) Chernobyl

1) Nuclear disaster in Ukraine (a republic of the Soviet Union) in 1986.

2) Thousands exposed to radiation/cancer.

F) Greenhouse Effect

1) Trapping of warm air in the atmosphere (leads to global warming).

2) Caused by chemicals (like carbon dioxide) in the atmosphere.

3) Could lead to flooding of coastal areas.

G) Solutions

1) Kyoto Protocol (1997)- International agreement calling for a decrease in carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasses from the 1990 levels.

2) NOTE: All of the problems listed above demonstrate that international cooperation is needed to improve the earth’s environment.

III. Science and Technology

A) Green Revolution

1) The term Green Revolution refers to the use of technology to increase the food supply (began in the 1960s).

2) Methods included improved irrigation, machinery, fertilizer, pesticides, and better seeds and livestock.

3) The Green Revolution has helped increase food production and decrease hunger in areas of Asia, Latin America, and Africa.

4)NOTE: The Green Revolution has been especially successful in India.

B) Nuclear Proliferation

1) Nuclear proliferation refers to the spread of nuclear technology to countries that do not currently posses them.

2) Although nuclear technology can be used to develop energy (i.e.- electricity), the same technology can also be used to create nuclear weapons.

3) North Korea (a communist nation) recently developed nuclear weapons and Iran may be in the process of developing nuclear weapons.

The space shuttle is being used in the most ambitious cooperative space venture. The project, sponsored by the United States, Russia, and 14 other nations, involves the building of the International Space Station (ISS). Since 1998, U.S. shuttles and Russian spacecraft have transported sections of the ISS to be assembled in space.