Rhetorical Devices Test

alliteration – The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in “she sells sea  shells”). Although the term is not frequently in the multiple choice section, you can look for alliteration in any essay  passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage.  

allusion – A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place,  or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and  a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion.   

analogy – A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain  something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also  make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging.  

antithesis – the opposition or contrast of ideas; the direct opposite.  

aphorism – A terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is  unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the  author’s point.  

apostrophe – A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty  or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional  intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, “Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: /  England hath need of thee.” Another example is Keats’ “Ode to a Grecian Urn,” in which Keats addresses the urn itself:  “Thou still unravished bride of quietness.” Many apostrophes imply a personification of the object addressed.   

connotation – The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas,  emotions, or attitudes.  

denotation – The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color. (Example: the denotation of a knife would be a utensil used to cut; the connotation of a knife might be fear, violence, anger, foreboding, etc.)    

euphemism – From the Greek for “good speech,” euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally  unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to  add humor or ironic understatement. Saying “earthly remains” rather than “corpse” is an example of euphemism.  

homily – This term literally means “sermon,” but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving  moral or spiritual advice.  

hyperbole – A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (The literal Greek meaning is “overshoot.”)  Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony. The  opposite of hyperbole is understatement.  

imagery – The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical  level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. On a broader and  deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual imagery  while also representing the color in a woman’s cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection. An author may use  complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition,  this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. On the AP language exam, pay attention to how an author  creates imagery and to the effect of this imagery.  

irony/ironic – The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the difference between what appears to  be and what is actually true. Irony is often used to create poignancy or humor. In general, there are three major types of  irony used in language:  

 (1) verbal irony – when the words literally state the opposite of the writer’s (or speaker’s) meaning   (2) situational irony – when events turn out the opposite of what was expected; when what the characters and  readers think ought to happen is not what does happen  

(3) dramatic irony – when facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to  the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.   

metaphor – A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other,  suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and  meaningful.   

mood – The prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood. Mood is similar  to tone and atmosphere. 

onomatopoeia – A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples include such  words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur. If you note examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, note  the effect.  

oxymoron – From the Greek for “pointedly foolish,” an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently  contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include “jumbo shrimp” and “cruel kindness.” This term  does not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay. Take  note of the effect that the author achieves with the use of oxymoron.  

paradox – A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains  some degree of truth or validity. (Think of the beginning of Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities: “It was the best of times, it was  the worst of times....”)  

parallelism – Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning “beside one  another.” It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural  similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal  phrase. (Again, the opening of Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities is an example: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of  times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of believe, it was the epoch of  incredulity....”) The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the  reader’s attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm. 

Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams’ Glossary of Literary Terms 

anaphora – A sub-type of parallelism, when the exact repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive lines  or sentences. MLK used anaphora in his famous “I Have a Dream” speech (1963). 

parody – A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. It  exploits peculiarities of an author’s expression (propensity to use too many parentheses, certain favorite words, etc.)  Well-written parody offers enlightenment about the original, but poorly written parody offers only ineffectual imitation.  Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in order to fully appreciate the  nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and don’t require knowledge of  the original.  

personification – A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by  endowing them with human attributes or emotions. Personification is used to make these abstractions, animals, or objects  appear more vivid to the reader.  

point of view – In literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions of point of view, and  many subdivisions within those.  

(1) first person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun, “I,” and is a character in the story. This narrator  can be the protagonist, a secondary character, or an observing character.  

(2) third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, “he,” “she,” and “it.” There are two main  subdivisions to be aware of:  

1. third person omniscient, in which the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of  any or all characters  

2. third person limited omniscient, in which the narrator presents the feelings and thoughts of only one  character, presenting only the actions of all the remaining characters.  

In addition, be aware that the term point of view carries an additional meaning. When you are asked to analyze the  author’s point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the author’s attitude.  

repetition – The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause,  sentence, or grammatical pattern.  

rhetoric – From the Greek for “orator,” this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and  persuasively.  

rhetorical modes – This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. The  four most common rhetorical modes (often referred to as “modes of discourse”) are as follows:  

(1) The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea,  relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP language exam essay questions are frequently expository  topics.  

(2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning,  discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having  an additional aim of urging some form of action.  

(3) The purpose of description is to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event or action so that the reader  can picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive  writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective or highly  emotional an subjective.  

(4) The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses  the tools of descriptive writing. 

Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams’ Glossary of Literary Terms 

sarcasm – From the Greek meaning “to tear flesh,” sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule  someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic (that is, intended to  ridicule). When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it is simply cruel.  

satire – A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule. Regardless of  whether or not the work aims to reform human behavior, satire is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for  writing. It can be recognized by the many devices used effectively by the satirist: irony, wit, parody, caricature,  hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm. The effects of satire are varied, depending on the writer’s goal, but good satire,  often humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition. Some modern satirists include Joseph  Heller (Catch 22) and Kurt Vonnegut (Cat’s Cradle, Player Piano).  

symbol/symbolism – Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something  concrete -- such as an object, action, character, or scene – that represents something more abstract. However, symbols  and symbolism can be much more complex. One system classifies symbols into three categories:  

(1) natural symbols are objects and occurrences from nature to symbolize ideas commonly associated with them (dawn  symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing love, a tree symbolizing knowledge).  

(2) conventional symbols are those that have been invested with meaning by a group (religious symbols such as a cross  or Star of David; national symbols, such as a flag or an eagle; or group symbols, such as a skull and crossbones for  pirates or the scale of justice for lawyers).  

(3) literary symbols are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and are more  generally recognized. However, a work’s symbols may be more complicated, as is the jungle in Heart of Darkness.  On the AP exam, try to determine what abstraction an object is a symbol for and to what extent it is successful in  representing that abstraction.  

synecdoche – a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent the whole or, occasionally, the whole is used to  represent a part. Examples: To refer to a boat as a “sail”; to refer to a car as “wheels”; to refer to the violins, violas, etc.  in an orchestra as “the strings.” **Different than metonymy, in which one thing is represented by another thing that is  commonly physically associated with it (but is not necessarily a part of it), i.e., referring to a monarch as “the crown” or  the President as “The White House.” 

syntax – The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is similar to diction, but you can  differentiate them by thinking of syntax as groups of words, while diction refers to the individual words. In the multiple choice section of the AP exam, expect to be asked some questions about how an author manipulates syntax. In the essay  section, you will need to analyze how syntax produces effects.  

theme – The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually theme is unstated in fictional works, but in  nonfiction, the theme may be directly state, especially in expository or argumentative writing.  

thesis – In expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author’s  opinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively,  and thoroughly a writer has proven the thesis.  

tone – Similar to mood, tone describes the author’s attitude toward his material, the audience, or both. Tone is easier to determine  in spoken language than in written language. Considering how a work would sound if it were read aloud can help in  identifying an author’s tone. Some words describing tone are playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal,  ornate, sardonic, somber, etc.  

understatement – the ironic minimalizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is. The effect can  frequently be humorous and emphatic. Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole. Example: Jonathan Swift’s A Tale  of a Tub: “Last week I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much it altered her person for the worse.”