Lecture 7: Politics, Society, Development and Environment:

Lecture Outline:

2. Definitions - what is citizenship?

3. Inclusions & exclusions: Boundary policing

4. Scale of Citizenship

Definitions:

• Citizenship: “The rights and duties relating to an individual’s membership of a political community.” (Mitchell, 2009, p.84)

• Diversity of citizenships?:

  • Citizenship is binary (you have or you don’t have citizenship)

  • But also as a non-binary: it is differentiated, graduated, and variegated

• T.H. Marshall’s “social citizenship”

  • Civic & legal: Property rights

  • Political: Voting and democratic participation

  • Social: Welfare, housing and healthcare

Differentiated citizenships:

• Civil rights for men and women

• Civil rights for African Americans

• Freedom of sexuality

• Freedom of expression I.e: Veils and Hijabs etc.

3. Citizenship’s inclusions and exclusions: Boundary Policing

• Constructing the US-Mexican Border

  • Visually constructed (Borders on a map)

  • Materially constructed (Mexico wall)

• Border practises & performances

• Border as embodied

Borders & Sovereignty at India-Bangladesh border:

Reece Jones (2015)

• Spatial & temporal fluidity of border

• Spaces of refusal - ‘refusal to abide by the binary framing of state territorial and identity categories’

Everyday Bordering:

• How can migration status change?

• What is meant by the term ‘everyday bordering’?

• What was/is the ‘Windrush scandal’?

2. Immigration Regimes

• "Controlling” borders & people who seek to cross them

• Immigration Regimes e.g. Singapore

  • June 2024: Population: 6 million

  • 3.64 million resident citizens

  • 544,900 permanent residents

  • 1.86 million other people (non-residents) = A country of net immigration

  • Two sources of labour treated very differently:

    • Foreign Talent: More mobility and opportunities

    • Foreign Labour: Temporary entry; and if pregnant then forced to leave

3. Citizenship & Identity

• “You’ll have to make an oath of allegiance (or you can make an affirmation if you prefer not to swear by God) and a pledge. This means you’ll promise to respect the rights, freedoms and laws of the UK”. (UK Government, 2025)

Scale of Citizenship

-Spain: Regional/Sub-National Identity

• Many diferent cultures derived from the different kingdoms that were in Spain:

  • Castilian Spanish 83%

  • Catalan 7%

  • Galician 4%

  • Arabic/English/French/Romanian 1%

• JUST LIKE: The UK with the North and South Divide, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland etc,

Flexible Citizenship:

• Citizenship is fluid in an increasingly globalising world.

• BUT not the same flexibility for everyone

• Holding multiple passports - accessing different resources & opportunities

Dual Citizenship and Remittances:

• 2023: estimated global remittances: US$ 822 billion, for example:

  • Tonga: 41.9% GDP

  • Tajikistan 38.4% GDP

  • Samoa 28.2% GDP

  • Nepal 26.3% GDP