PSYC_2320_Abnormal_Psychology_Chapter_1_

Describing Psychological Disorders

• Identifying symptoms can be straightforward or complex.

• Four characteristics to identify psychological disorders:

  • Distress

  • Dysfunction

  • Deviance

  • Danger

Important Factors in Understanding Psychological Disorders

• Context

• Culture

• Socioeconomic status

• Genetic predisposition

Understanding the Context

• Group expectations:

  • Family, friends, neighborhood, and culture.

  • Conflicting standards may lead to individuation.

• Culture: Shared behavior patterns and lifestyles.

  • Culture-bound syndromes: Abnormal behaviors specific to a group.

• Socioeconomic status (SES):

  • Family income and education.

  • Higher prevalence of psychological disorders in low-income, less educated groups.

  • Downward drift: Decrease in SES due to psychological disorder.

• Genetic predisposition:

  • Contributes to psychological disorder onset and academic/occupational difficulties.

Prevalence of Psychological Disorders

• DSM-5-TR (Diagnostic guide):

  • Focuses on symptoms and scientific basis.

  • Clinical presentation

  • Etiology

  • Developmental stage

  • Functional impairment

• Prevalence:

  • Proportion of diagnosed people and rate variations across countries/cultures.

  • Substantial numbers across all demographics.

• Developmental factors:

  • Age-appropriate behaviors becoming problematic with maturation.

  • Developmental trajectory: Disorder symptoms vary with age.

  • Inattention can cause inaccurate diagnoses.

The History of Abnormal Behavior and Its Treatment

• Ancient theories

• Classical Greek and Roman periods

• The Middle Ages through the Renaissance

• The 19th century and the beginning of modern thought

• The 20th century

• Current perspectives

Ancient Theories

• Ancient cultures believed in spirits controlling behavior.

• Trephination: Creating skull holes to release evil spirits.

Classic Greek and Roman Periods

• Melampus of Pilus introduced the organic model of illness.

• Hippocrates (460–377 BC):

  • Identified hallucinations, delusions, melancholia, and mania.

  • Introduced hysteria.

  • Believed in environmental/physical factors causing humoral imbalance.

The Middle Ages Through the Renaissance

• Influence of Roman Catholic Church:

  • Negative behaviors attributed to the devil.

  • Witchcraft theory.

  • Over 100,000 accused, mostly women, with tens of thousands executed.

• Mass hysteria spreads

  • Emotional contagion: Transferring moods among group members.

• John Weyer and Paracelsus refueled enlightenment

• Asylums

The 19th Century and the Beginning of Modern Thought

• Philippe Pinel proposed mental illnesses were curable.

• Shift from asylums to specialized treatment facilities.

• Pinel and William Tuke advocated moral treatment:

  • Respect, kindness, religion, and vocation.

  • Rush and Dix in the United States.

• Franz Anton Mesmer: Animal magnetism and magnetic passes.

  • Mesmer’s theory and cures debunked; illustrated placebo effect.

• Movement toward a biological perspective:

  • Syphilis

  • Kraepelin: Dementia praecox

  • Charcot, Liebeault, and Bernheim

  • Breuer: Talking cure

The 20th Century

• Psychoanalysis:

  • Sigmund Freud

  • Importance of the unconscious.

  • Mind consists of the id, ego, and superego.

  • Defense mechanisms.

  • Free association/transference.

  • Key therapeutic ingredient was insight.

• Behaviorism:

  • Ivan Pavlov and John B. Watson

  • Pavlov’s dog and classical conditioning.

  • Watson and Rayner: Little Albert study

  • Little Peter

  • Behavior can be learned and unlearned.

• Behaviorism:

  • Wolpe: Systematic desensitization

  • Skinner: Operant conditioning

    • Primary and secondary reinforcements

    • Shaping

  • Bandura: Observational learning

Current Perspectives and Treatment of Psychology Disorders

• Scientific advances lead to new approaches.

• Insights from other scientific areas.

• Scientist-practitioner model: Psychologists use research findings in treatment.

Biological Perspectives

• Psychological disorders result from biological processes.

• Genetic and hereditary factors are important.

• The brain’s messaging system:

  • Neurons

  • Synapses

  • Neurotransmitters

• Brain structure and functions.

• Potential causes of abnormal structure or function.

• Behavioral genetics: Role of genes and environment.

• Viral infection theory: Prenatal/early exposure to toxins or viruses.

Psychological Perspectives

• The modern psychodynamic perspective:

  • Influential behind-the-scenes forces.

  • Personality shapes experience.

  • The past is powerful.

  • Lives determined by unconscious forces.

  • Ego psychology focuses on conscious motivations.

• The humanistic perspective:

  • Based on phenomenology.

  • People are good and motivated to self-actualize.

  • Carl Rogers

    • Psychopathology is associated with psychological incongruence

    • Client-centered therapy: Genuineness, empathic understanding, and unconditional positive regard.

• The behavioral perspective:

  • Behavior is a product of an individual’s learning history.

  • Dysfunction results from maladaptive learning.

  • Biology interacts with the environment to influence behavior

  • Behavioral therapists help people change behavior (exposure therapy, systematic desensitization).

  • Modeling is also important.

  • Example of current application is applied behavioral analysis (ABA)

• The cognitive perspective:

  • Psychological disorders result from distorted cognitive (mental) processes.

  • Aaron Beck

    • Negative view of self, the world, and the future (cognitive triad)

    • Therapy is directed at modifying distorted thought processes.

• The cognitive behavioral perspective:

  • Focuses on the reciprocal relationships between our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

  • Therapist helps client develop plan to reduce or eliminate identified symptoms.

  • Used across most psychological disorders and in most age groups.

Sociocultural Perspectives

• Psychological disorders within social and cultural factors.

• Race and ethnicity

• Gender/sex and gender roles

• Socioeconomic status

• Cultural factors may impact symptom expression and diagnosis.

The Biopsychosocial Model

• Individual case is unique so no single model can fully explain any psychological disorder

• Diathesis-stress model

  • Psychological disorders start with a genetic predisposition for a disorder that is latent until a stressful event

  • The stress creates an environment for the psychological disorder to be expressed.

Term 1: Distress
Definition 1: A characteristic used to identify psychological disorders. It refers to the suffering or emotional pain experienced by an individual due to their condition.
Term 2: Dysfunction
Definition 2: A characteristic used to identify psychological disorders. It involves the impairment or disturbance in an individual's ability to perform daily activities and roles.
Term 3: Deviance
Definition 3: A characteristic used to identify psychological disorders. It refers to behaviors, thoughts, or emotions that are highly unusual or violate social norms.
Term 4: Danger
Definition 4: A characteristic used to identify psychological disorders. It involves the risk of harm to oneself or others as a result of the psychological condition.
Term 5: Context
Definition 5: Important factor in understanding psychological disorders. Refers to the specific circumstances, environment, and situation in which behaviors occur, influencing how they are interpreted.
Term 6: Culture
Definition 6: Important factor in understanding psychological disorders. Shared behavior patterns and lifestyles that influence the expression and understanding of psychological disorders.
Term 7: Socioeconomic status (SES)
Definition 7: Important factor in understanding psychological disorders. Family income and education level, which can affect the prevalence and course of psychological disorders.
Term 8: Genetic predisposition
Definition 8: Important factor in understanding psychological disorders. Inherited genetic factors that can increase an individual's risk for developing psychological disorders.
Term 9: Culture-bound syndromes
Definition 9: Abnormal behaviors specific to a particular cultural group.
Term 10: Downward drift
Definition 10: Decrease in socioeconomic status (SES) as a result of a psychological disorder.
Term 11: DSM-5-TR
Definition 11: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition, Text Revision. A guide that focuses on symptoms and the scientific basis for diagnosing psychological disorders.
Term 12: Clinical presentation
Definition 12: The combination of symptoms and behaviors that characterize a specific psychological disorder.
Term 13: Etiology
Definition 13: The cause, set of causes, or manner of causation of a disease or condition.
Term 14: Functional impairment
Definition 14: Significant limitations in an individual's ability to perform daily activities and roles due to a psychological disorder.
Term 15: Prevalence
Definition 15: Proportion of people in a population who have been diagnosed with a specific psychological disorder.
Term 16: Developmental trajectory
Definition 16: The pattern of changes in symptoms and behaviors associated with a psychological disorder as an individual ages.
Term 17: Trephination
Definition 17: Ancient practice of creating holes in the skull to release evil spirits believed to control behavior.
Term 18: Humoral imbalance
Definition 18: Belief in ancient Greece and Rome that mental disorders were caused by an imbalance in bodily fluids (humors).
Term 19: Emotional contagion
Definition 19: The phenomenon of moods and emotions spreading among members of a group.
Term 20: Moral treatment
Definition 20: An approach to treating mental illness in the 19th century that emphasized respect, kindness, religion, and vocation.
Term 21: Animal magnetism
Definition 21: Franz Anton Mesmer's theory involving a magnetic force that could be used to cure illnesses; later debunked but illustrated the placebo effect.
Term 22: Placebo effect
Definition 22: A beneficial effect produced by a treatment or substance that cannot be attributed to the treatment itself and is due to the patient's belief in it.
Term 23: Talking cure
Definition 23: Josef Breuer's therapeutic approach involving patients talking about their problems and experiences.
Term 24: Psychoanalysis
Definition 24: Sigmund Freud's theory emphasizing the importance of the unconscious mind, the id, ego, superego, defense mechanisms, and techniques like free association and transference.
Term 25: Id
Definition 25: In psychoanalysis, the part of the mind that contains primitive drives and instincts and seeks immediate gratification.
Term 26: Ego
Definition 26: In psychoanalysis, the part of the mind that mediates between the id and reality, using rational thought to satisfy needs and avoid negative consequences.
Term 27: Superego
Definition 27: In psychoanalysis, the part of the mind that represents internalized societal and parental standards of morality, often experienced as guilt or conscience.
Term 28: Defense mechanisms
Definition 28: In psychoanalysis, unconscious psychological strategies used to cope with anxiety and maintain a positive self-image.
Term 29: Free association
Definition 29: A psychoanalytic technique where the patient verbalizes any thoughts that come to mind, without censorship, to reveal unconscious associations.
Term 30: Transference
Definition 30: A psychoanalytic process where the patient unconsciously redirects feelings experienced in an important personal relationship toward the therapist.
Term 31: Insight
Definition 31: In psychoanalysis, the key therapeutic ingredient involving the patient's understanding of their unconscious conflicts and motivations.
Term 32: Classical conditioning
Definition 32: A learning process where an involuntary response becomes associated with a new stimulus, as demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov's experiments with dogs.
Term 33: Operant conditioning
Definition 33: A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
Term 34: Systematic desensitization
Definition 34: A behavioral therapy technique developed by Wolpe to reduce anxiety responses through gradual exposure to feared stimuli paired with relaxation techniques.
Term 35: Primary reinforcements
Definition 35: Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs
Term 36: Secondary reinforcements
Definition 36: Events that gain reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcers.
Term 37: Shaping
Definition 37: A process in which new behaviors are gradually trained by differentially reinforcing successive approximations toward the desired behavior.
Term 38: Observational learning
Definition 38: Learning by observing others and imitating their behavior.
Term 39: Scientist-practitioner model
Definition 39: A model where psychologists use research findings to inform and guide their clinical treatment approaches.
Term 40: Neurons
Definition 40: Nerve cells in the brain that transmit electrical and chemical signals.
Term 41: Synapses
Definition 41: The spaces between neurons where neurotransmitters are released and received.
Term 42: Neurotransmitters
Definition 42: Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons in the brain.
Term 43: Behavioral genetics
Definition 43: The study of how genes and the environment influence behavior, including psychological disorders.
Term 44: Viral infection theory
Definition 44: The theory hat prenatal or early exposure to toxins or viruses may contribute to the development of psychological disorders.
Term 45: Ego psychology
Definition 45: A branch of psychoanalysis that emphasizes conscious motivations and the ego's role in shaping experience.
Term 46: Humanistic Perspective
Definition 46: A perspective that emphasizes human potential, self-actualization, and the belief that people are inherently good.
Term 47: Client-centered therapy
Definition 47: A humanistic therapy approach developed by Carl Rogers, characterized by genuineness, empathic understanding, and unconditional positive regard.
Term 48: Cognitive Triad
Definition 48: Aaron Beck's concept describing the negative view of self, the world, and the future often associated with psychological disorders.
Term 49: Cognitive Behavioral Perspective
Definition 49: An approach focusing on the reciprocal relationships between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to reduce or eliminate identified symptoms.
Term 50: Diathesis-stress model
Definition 50: A model suggesting that psychological disorders result from a combination of a genetic predisposition (diathesis) and stressful environmental factors.

Describing Psychological Disorders

• Symptoms: Can be straightforward or complex.

• Four characteristics:

  • Distress: Emotional pain.

  • Dysfunction: Impaired daily activities.

  • Deviance: Unusual behavior.

  • Danger: Risk of harm.

Important Factors

• Context: Environment.

• Culture: Shared behaviors.

  • Culture-bound syndromes: Group-specific.

• Socioeconomic status (SES): Income, education.

  • Low SES: Higher disorder rates.

  • Downward drift: Disorder lowers SES.

• Genetic predisposition: Increases risk.

Prevalence

• DSM-5-TR: Diagnostic guide.

  • Focus: Symptoms, science.

  • Includes: Presentation, etiology, development.

• Prevalence: Varies by culture.

• Developmental factors: Age-related behaviors, symptom changes.

History

• Ancient: Spirits, trephination.

• Greek/Roman: Hippocrates, humoral imbalance.

• Middle Ages: Church, witchcraft, hysteria.

• 19th Century: Pinel (curable), moral treatment, Mesmer (placebo).

• 20th Century: Freud (psychoanalysis), Pavlov/Watson (behaviorism).

Current Perspectives

• Scientific advances.

• Scientist-practitioner: Research-based.

Biological

• Disorders: Biological processes.

• Genetics, brain, neurotransmitters.

• Behavioral genetics, viral theory.

Psychological

• Psychodynamic: Unconscious, past.

• Humanistic: Self-actualization.

• Behavioral: Learning.

• Cognitive: Distorted thinking.

• Cognitive-Behavioral: Thoughts, feelings, behaviors.

Sociocultural

• Social/cultural factors: Race, gender, SES.

• Impact: Symptoms, diagnosis.