Key Supreme Court Cases and Their Implications

Context: Significant Supreme Court case regarding government and religion under the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.
Background: New Jersey school district reimbursed parents for transportation to public and Catholic schools.
Challenge: A taxpayer argued this violated church-state separation.
Court Decision: 5-4 ruling upheld reimbursement policy.
- Payments were to parents, not religious institutions.
- Part of a general program to assist students.
Principle Affirmed: Government must remain neutral in religious matters.
Famous Quote: "A wall of separation between Church and State."

Context: Landmark case establishing the Lemon Test for the Establishment Clause.
Issue: State laws in Pennsylvania and Rhode Island funded private religious school salaries.
Court Ruling: Struck down these laws as they caused impermissible church-state entanglement.
Lemon Test Criteria:
1. Must have a secular legislative purpose.
2. Must not predominantly advance or inhibit religion.
3. Must not result in excessive government entanglement with religion.
Impact: Central tool for evaluating Establishment Clause cases.

Context: Significant shift in Free Exercise Clause approach.
Facts: Native Americans fired for using peyote in religious ceremonies.
Ruling: Denial of unemployment benefits upheld; the law against peyote was a neutral law.
Key Conclusion: Individuals must comply with laws even if they burden religious practices.
Criticism: Narrowed religious liberty protections, leading to the Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA) in 1993.

Context: Group of five cases assessing the Civil Rights Act of 1875.
Ruling: Supreme Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment restricts state action only, not private businesses.
Significance: Established the state action doctrine; weakened federal efforts against racial discrimination.

Issue: Constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, prohibiting racial discrimination in public accommodations.
Challenge: Motel owner argued Congress exceeded authority by regulating a private business.
Ruling: Unanimous decision affirming Congress's power under the Commerce Clause to regulate businesses affecting interstate commerce.

Purpose: Response to Employment Division v. Smith, aimed at restoring higher scrutiny for governmental burdens on religious exercise.
Key Mandate: Government cannot substantially burden religious exercise without compelling interest and least restrictive means.
Impact: RFRA applies at the federal level despite limitations imposed by City of Boerne v. Flores (1997) on state application.

Context: Gender discrimination in public education, specifically focusing on Virginia Military Institute's exclusion of women.
Ruling: 7-1 decision declared the exclusion unconstitutional, emphasizing gender-based discrimination must serve an important governmental interest.
Impact: Significant advancement in gender equality and protection of women's rights under the Constitution.

Doctrine: Established "separate but equal"; upheld racial segregation laws.
Case Background: Homer Plessy arrested for sitting in a “whites-only” car.
Court Ruling: Segregation upheld, legitimizing racial discrimination until overturned by Brown v. Board of Education (1954).

Ruling: Overturned the "separate but equal" doctrine, declaring segregated schools inherently unequal.
Key Argument: Segregation creates a sense of inferiority undermining educational opportunities for African American children.
Outcome: Mandated the desegregation of public schools, pivotal in the Civil Rights Movement.

Context: Case on a public school coach's right to pray on the field post-games.
Ruling: 6-3 decision affirmed the right to free speech and exercise of religion, finding no coercion or government endorsement.
Significance: Marked a shift in the court's approach to individual religious expression in public institutions.

Issue: Affirmative action in college admissions; Allan Bakke's denial due to racial quotas.
Ruling: Race can be considered for diversity, but quotas are unconstitutional.
Impact: Set the foundation for ongoing debates on race and higher education.

Outcome: Ended race-conscious admissions in higher education, affirming admission processes must be "colorblind."
Key Argument: Race as a factor in admissions lacked measurable objectives and failed to meet scrutiny standards, marking a major shift in college admissions policies.

Context: Expanded protections against workplace discrimination to LGBTQ+ employees.
Ruling: Prohibited discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Significance: Landmark case recognizing federal protection for LGBTQ+ rights in employment.