Global History & Geography Regents Review Packet

Methodology of Global History and Geography

• Historical Skills: Distinguishing fact from opinion, understanding point of view.

Historical Sources

• Primary Source: Firsthand account by an eyewitness.
  • Examples: Diaries, photographs, artifacts, autobiographies.
• Secondary Source: Secondhand account by someone not present at the event.
  • Examples: Textbooks, encyclopedias, biographies.

An Age of Revolution

Intellectual Revolutions of Europe

• Enlightenment: Emphasizing Natural Law, with key figures like Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau.

Political Revolutions

• French Revolution (including the role of Napoleon Bonaparte).
• Latin American Revolutions (led by Simon Bolivar and Toussaint L’Ouverture).

Industrial Revolution

• Causes and Effects.
• Laissez-Faire Capitalism.
• Karl Marx's critique.

Nationalism

• Unification of Italy and Germany.
• Nationalism in Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.
• Nationalism in Ireland (Potato Famine).

Imperialism

• Defined: Strong countries conquering weaker ones.
• Causes of Imperialism.
• Imperialism in India, China, and Africa (Opium War, Spheres of Influence, Sepoy Mutiny, Boxer Rebellion).
• Imperialism in Japan (Commodore Perry, Meiji Restoration).

The Intellectual Revolutions of Europe

The Enlightenment (1700s)

• Age of Reason: Reason and logic applied to improve society.
• Key Ideas:
  • Society improved via reason and natural law (universal, unchanging rules).
  • Governments derive authority from the people.
  • Belief in democracy.
  • Connection to Scientific Revolution: Both encouraged new ideas and reason.
• Key People:
  • John Locke: Natural rights (life, liberty, property); right to overthrow governments failing to protect these rights.
  • Baron de Montesquieu: Separation of powers (executive, legislative, judicial) with checks and balances.
  • Voltaire: Freedom of speech and religion.
  • Rousseau: Social contract where people work for the common good.
• Key Effects:
  • Inspired political revolutions in France, Latin America, and the United States.
  • Enlightened Despots: European rulers using Enlightenment principles.

Political Revolutions

Introduction

• Political revolution: Overthrow of an existing government to create a new one.

The French Revolution and Napoleon (1789-1815)

• Overthrow of King Louis XVI for more rights.
• Key Causes:
  • Three Estates: Third Estate (peasants) angry about limited rights and high taxes.
  • Absolute monarchs: Perceived abuse of power and denial of rights.
  • Enlightenment ideas: Inspired the overthrow of unfair kings for a government protecting rights.
  • Economic crisis: Excessive spending leading to debt.
• Key Events:
  • Declaration of the Rights of Man: Equal rights for men, fair taxation.
  • Reign of Terror: Execution of people loyal to the king, led by Jacobins and Robespierre.
• Key Effects:
  • Execution of King Louis XVI.
  • Increased power and rights for the French middle class.
• Napoleon Bonaparte:
  • Came to power after the revolution.
  • Expanded French territory, fostering nationalism.
  • Defeated in 1812 due to invading Russia during winter (a mistake later repeated by Hitler).

The Latin American Revolutions (1800-1830)

• Colonies fighting for independence from Spain, Portugal, and France.
• Key Causes:
  • Peninsulares controlled governments, mistreating other groups (Creoles, Mestizos, Native Americans, African slaves).
  • Enlightenment ideas: Inspired the fight for self-government.
  • Inspiration from the American and French Revolutions.
• Key Leaders:
  • Simon Bolivar
  • Jose de San Martin
  • Miguel Hidalgo
  • Toussaint L’Ouverture
  • All considered nationalists.
• Attempts to unify Latin America failed due to natural boundaries hindering communication.

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution (1700s-1800s)

• Shift from hand production to machine production in factories.
• Started in Great Britain due to abundant natural resources (coal, iron, waterways = favorable geography).
• Key Effects:
  • Industrialization: Machine production in factories.
  • Urbanization: Growth of cities as people sought factory jobs, leading to pollution.
  • Bad working conditions: Dangerous, long hours, low pay, child labor.
  • Formation of Labor Unions: Workers organizing to improve pay and conditions.
  • Legislation: Governments passing laws for minimum wage and to end child labor.
• Laissez Faire Capitalism (Market Economy):
  • Private ownership of businesses and factories.
  • Business decisions made by individuals.
  • Prices set by supply and demand.
• Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels:
  • Critique of laissez faire capitalism as exploitation of workers.
  • “Communist Manifesto”:
    • History is class struggle.
    • Industrial Revolution: Bourgeoisie (factory owners) exploit the Proletariat (workers).
    • Proletariat revolution: Overthrow the bourgeoisie and eliminate laissez faire capitalism.
    • Create an equal society: Shared work and wealth, no social classes.
  • Ideas formed the basis of Communism, inspiring countries like the Soviet Union and China.

Nationalism

Introduction

• Feeling of love, loyalty, and devotion to one’s country.
• Nationalism develops where people share common language, culture, and history.

Unification of Italy and Germany (1870-1871)

• Prior to 1870: Italy and Germany were divided into separate states.
• Nationalism: Desire to unite separate states into one nation.
• Unification of Italy (1870): Achieved through efforts of Garibaldi, Mazzini, and Cavour.
• Unification of Germany (1871): Achieved by Otto von Bismarck's "blood and iron" policy (wars).

Nationalism in Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire

• Both empires ruled diverse ethnic groups.
• Nationalism: Ethnic minorities sought independence.
• Both empires eventually broken up due to nationalist movements.

Nationalism in Ireland

• 1801: Great Britain took over Ireland.
• Potato Famine (1845-1850):
  • 1 million Irish died of starvation.
  • 1 million Irish migrated to the United States.
• Nationalism:
  • Desire for independence from Great Britain.
  • 1921: Southern Ireland (Catholic) gained independence; Northern Ireland (Protestant) remained part of Great Britain.

Imperialism

Introduction

• Imperialism (Colonization): Strong country takes over a weaker one; the taken area = a colony.
• 19th Century: European (Western) nations (Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy) took over lands in Africa and Asia.
• Causes of Imperialism:
  • Need for raw materials/natural resources.
  • “White Man’s Burden”: Racist poem encouraging Europeans to civilize other races.
  • Social Darwinism: Idea that strong countries should take over weaker ones.

Imperialism in India, China, and Africa (1800s-1914)

• Negative effects of European colonization:
  • “Scramble for Africa”: European countries raced to take over Africa.
  • China: Opium Wars led to spheres of influence controlled by European nations.
  • India: Taken over by Great Britain for almost 200 years.
• Resistance to European Rule:
  • Sepoy Mutiny: India's failed attempt to gain independence from Great Britain.
  • Boxer Rebellion: China's failed attempt to gain independence from European powers.

Imperialism in Japan

• 1600-1854: Japan was largely isolated.
• 1854: Commodore Matthew Perry (US) opened Japan to trade.
• Meiji Restoration (1868-1912):
  • Rapid modernization and westernization under Emperor Meiji.
  • Modernization: Industrialization (factories, roads, communications).
  • Westernization: Adopting Western customs and techniques.
• Japan became a powerful, modern, industrial country.
• Japanese Imperialism:
  • Needed natural resources for factories.
  • Took over Korea and parts of China.

World War I

World War I (1914-1918)

• Global military conflict mainly in Europe.
• Causes (M.A.I.N.):
  • Militarism: Buildup of armies and weapons.
  • Alliances: Division into military alliances (Triple Alliance, Triple Entente).
  • Imperialism: Competition for lands in Africa, Asia, and the Balkans.
  • Nationalism: Ethnic groups in the Balkans wanted independence from Austria-Hungary.
  • Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand triggered the war.
• Treaty of Versailles:
  • Punished Germany severely:
    • Forced to accept blame for WWI.
    • Required to pay 30 billion in war reparations.
    • Military reduction.
    • Loss of land.
  • Harshness of the treaty contributed to the rise of Hitler and WWII.
• Key Effects:
  • Breakup of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire: Creation of new nations in Eastern Europe.
  • Armenian Massacre: Genocide by Turks in the Ottoman Empire.
  • Women gained suffrage in Europe because they helped during WWI doing factory work.

Russian/Bolshevik Revolution

The Russian Revolution of 1917

• Overthrow of the Czar and creation of a new government.
• Causes:
  • World War I: Casualties and domestic food shortages.
  • Czar Nicholas II: Perceived abuse of power, took away people's rights.
• Bolsheviks:
  • Radical group led by Vladimir Lenin.
  • Slogan: "Peace, Land, and Bread."
• Effects:
  • Execution of Czar Nicholas II.
  • Lenin and the Bolsheviks came to power.
  • Russia became a Communist nation.

Nationalism Between World Wars

Nationalism Between World Wars (1919-1939)

• Turkey:
  • Ottoman Empire broken up after WWI.
  • Kemal Ataturk: Nationalist leader who strengthened Turkey through:
    • Westernization.
    • Democracy.
  • Muslims resented Ataturk's secular laws.
• Zionism:
  • Jewish nationalist movement to create a nation in the Holy Land.
  • Conflict with Palestinians over territory.
• India:
  • Increasing demands for independence from Britain.
  • Mohandas Gandhi:
    • Non-violent methods.
    • Salt March.
    • Boycott of British products.

Totalitarianism Between World Wars

Introduction to Totalitarian Dictatorships

• One ruler has complete control over all aspects of life.
• Established in the Soviet Union (Stalin), Italy (Mussolini), and Germany (Hitler).
• Common Characteristics:
  • Censorship.
  • One political party.
  • State above individual needs.
  • Elimination of opposition.
  • Propaganda.
• Hitler and Mussolini came to power due to economic problems.

Totalitarianism under Joseph Stalin

• Totalitarian dictator of the Soviet Union (Russia).
• Command (Communist) Economy: Government owns businesses, makes decisions, sets prices.
• Five-Year Plans: Economic goals to modernize industry and agriculture.
• Collectivization: Forced people to live on government-owned collective farms.
• Stalin took away the food of the people of the Ukraine which resisted his program of collectivization. Millions of peasants in the Ukraine died of forced starvation.

World War II

Introduction to World War II (1939-1945)

• Second major global conflict of the 20th century.
• Fought mainly in Europe and the Pacific.

Events Leading up to World War II

• Japanese Aggression:
  • Took over Korea, Manchuria, and Southeast Asia for resources.
  • Rape of Nanking: Brutal human rights violation.
• Italian Aggression: Mussolini took over Ethiopia.
• German Aggression: Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles:
  • Built up the military.
  • Placed soldiers in the Rhineland.
  • Took over Austria.
  • Took over Czechoslovakia.
• Little was done early on to stop Hitler, Mussolini, or Japan.
• League of Nations failed to stop aggression.
• Appeasement: Giving an aggressive nation what they want to avoid war.
• WWII started when Hitler invaded Poland in 1939.

Key Events of World War II

• Invasion of Poland: Started WWII.
• Pearl Harbor: Japan launched an attack against the United States. This brought us into World War II.
• Hitler failed to conquer Russia at the Battle of Stalingrad because of the harsh climate (severe winter) and large size of the nation.
• D-Day Invasion: Beginning of the final Allied push against Germany.
• Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The U.S. dropped two atomic bombs on Japan. Japan surrendered after bombing. This event ended WWII.
• The Holocaust:
  • Hitler and the Nazis tried to kill all Jews in Europe. 6 million Jews and 6 million non-Jews were killed during this event.
  • The Holocaust is an example of genocide.

Effects (Results) of World War II

• Formation of the United Nations
  • The United Nations is the organization that was created after World War II in order to solve international problems and prevent future wars.
  • 191 nations (almost the entire world) currently belong to the United Nations.
  • The United Nations is made of 6 main bodies consisting of:
    • The Security Council- Keeps peace between nations.
    • International Court of Justice- Settles disputes between countries.
    • General Assembly- Votes on key policies of the United Nations.
    • Secretariat- Responsible for day-to-day administration of the United Nations.
  • Declaration of Human Rights- Was a document created by the United Nations that lists the rights that ALL people should have within their nations. This includes the right to freedom of speech, the right to life, and the right to participate in government.
• Nuremberg Trials:
  • It was a court case where the surviving Nazis who helped Hitler carry out the Holocaust were put on trial.
  • 19 Nazi leaders were executed or sentenced to imprisonment as a result of “crimes against humanity” which include genocide.
  • The Nuremberg Trials are important because they demonstrated that individuals in government could be held accountable for their actions.

The Cold War

The Cold War (1945-1991)

• A 50 year struggle between the United States (a democratic nation) and the Soviet Union (a communist nation) after World War II.
• Key events and characteristics:
  • After World War II, the Soviet Union took over the small nations of Eastern Europe and turned them into communist satellites
  • “Iron Curtain”- Term used by Winston Churchill to describe the imaginary line dividing the democratic countries of Western Europe from the communist countries of Eastern Europe.
  • Containment- This was the policy used by the United States in which it attempted to stop the spread of communism. Two examples of containment were:
    • Truman Doctrine- The United States gave 400 million in economic and military aid to Greece and Turkey to help them defeat communist groups within their countries
    • Marshall Plan- The United States gave 13 billion to the countries of Western Europe to help them rebuild after World War II.
  • Crisis in Germany
    • After World War II, Germany was divided into 2 nations. West Germany became a democratic nation. East Germany became a communist nation controlled by the Soviet Union.
    • Berlin Wall- Concrete wall built by the Communists around the city of West Berlin to prevent people in East Germany from fleeing to West Germany.
    • Berlin Airlift- Event in which the United States, Britain, and France flew in supplies to the people of West Berlin after Stalin set up a blockade.
  • Military alliances- Both the United States and Soviet Union formed their own military alliances in order to be prepared for a possible war:
    • NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)- This was a military alliance between the United States, Canada, and the democratic nations of Western Europe. The nations of this alliance agreed than an attack on one nation in the alliance was considered to be an attack on all of the nations of the alliance.
    • Warsaw Pact- This was a military alliance between the Soviet Union and the other Communist nations of Eastern Europe.
  • Hungarian Revolution of 1956- When Hungary (a communist satellite controlled by the Soviet Union) tried to break away from Soviet control, the Soviet Union sent in the army and repressed (ended) the rebellion.
  • Arms Race- The United States and Soviet Union competed to build up the largest supply of nuclear weapons.
  • Cuban Missile Crisis
    • Began when the United States discovered that the Soviet Union was building missile bases in Cuba (a new Communist nation) and pointing nuclear missiles at the United States.
    • The crisis ended when the Soviet Union agreed to remove the missiles.
    • This event is the closest the world has ever come to nuclear war between countries.
  • During the Cold War, Korea and Vietnam (two nations in East Asia) were each divided into 2 separate countries. One side of each country became communist and the other side became democratic. The Korean War and the Vietnam War were the result of this situation. Today, North Korea is still communist and South Korea is still democratic. After the Vietnam War, all of Vietnam became one united communist nation.

ECONOMIC ISSUES AFTER WORLD WAR II

Economic Cooperation

• After World War II, various regions of the world started to create organizations that were designed to increase trade and promote economic prosperity (wealth).
• Two of these organizations include:
  • European Union (E.U.)- This is an organization that now includes 27 countries in Europe. They have decreased tariffs (taxes) and now use a single form of currency (money) called “The Euro.”
  • North American Free Trade Agreement (N.A.F.T.A.)- This is an organization that includes the United States, Canada, and Mexico. By decreasing tariffs (taxes), this organization has increased trade between the 3 main countries of North America.
  • These 2 organizations are examples of economic cooperation and interdependence (countries working together and relying on each other).

Oil Politics

• Oil (also called petroleum) is among the world’s most important natural resources.
• Most of the world’s oil is located in the Middle East. Oil is the main reason why the Middle East has developed wealth and influence.
• Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (O.P.E.C.)
  • This is an organization that was created by the main oil-producing countries of the world.
  • Together, the member countries of O.P.E.C. determine the price of oil as well as production levels (i.e.- the amount of oil available to other countries).

COMMUNISM IN CHINA

Communism in China (1949-Present)

• In 1949, after 22 years of civil war, China became the second country in the world (after the Soviet Union) to adopt communism.
• Mao Zedong
  • He was the first Communist dictator of China.
  • He gained the support of peasants because he promised to provide them with their own land once the Communists were brought to power.
  • Great Leap Forward
    • This was the attempt by Mao to modernize (update) the industrial (factory) and agricultural (farm) production of China.
    • Peasants in China were forced to move onto large government farms.
    • This program was very similar to the Five Year Plans and Collectivization that took place in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin.
    • Both Mao and Stalin had a command (or communist) economy in which the government owned businesses and farms and made all economic decisions.
  • Cultural Revolution- This was a period in China where Mao used violent young Communist soldiers (known as Red Guards) to eliminate all of the opposition (enemies) that he had within China.
• Deng Xiaoping
  • He was the ruler in China after Mao Zedong.
  • Deng changed the economy of China from a command/communist economy (in which the government owns businesses) to a market/capitalist/free enterprise economy (in which individuals own businesses). This is the system that is largely used in China today.
  • Tiananmen Square Protests/Massacre (1989)
    • This was a series of protests where the Chinese peacefully demanded democratic reforms (changes)- They wanted more rights and a say in government.
    • Deng Xiaoping called in the army to repress (end) the protests. Hundreds of Chinese protesters were killed or arrested.
    • This proved that China’s government was not willing to make democratic changes.

Current issues in China

• China controls the Buddhist region of Tibet. The people of Tibet want independence (self-government).
• China denies its people human rights (such as freedom of speech and the right to vote).
• In order to prevent overpopulation (China has 1.3 billion people), the government of China only allows each family to have one child.

Decolonization

Intro to Decolonization

• Decolonization is the period after World War II in which the nations of Africa and Asia finally gained independence (self-government) from the European (Western) nations that controlled them.

Decolonization in India (1948)

• After World War II, India gained independence (self-government) from Great Britain (England). This was largely due to the efforts of Mohandas Gandhi.
• In order to prevent conflict (war) between Hindus and Muslims, the region that was controlled by Great Britain was divided into two separate countries:
  • India- Nation created for the Hindus of the region.
  • Pakistan- Nation created for the Muslims of the region.
  • Despite the creation of two separate nations, there is still ethnic tension between Hindus and Muslims in the region. Kashmir is an area near India and Pakistan that both nations claim to control. The situation is dangerous since both India and Pakistan have nuclear weapons.
• India after independence:
  • India established a democratic government.
  • India followed a policy of nonalignment (or neutrality) during the Cold War, which means that it did not take sides. It remained neutral.
  • Caste System- Although India’s constitution prevents discrimination against the lowest social classes (or castes) in India, there continues to be discrimination in rural (farming) areas since tradition remains strong there. Discrimination against untouchables (the lowest class/caste) is especially severe.

Decolonization in Africa (1945-1980)

• Between 1945 and 1980, the many nations of Africa finally gained independence (selfgovernment) from the European (or Western) nations that controlled them.

• Independence was achieved largely due to the efforts of nationalist leaders who led movements to gain self-government. Two leaders that fought to gain independence from Great Britain (England) include:

  • Jomo Kenyatta- Gained independence for Kenya.
  • Kwame Nkrumah- Gained independence for Ghana.

• South Africa after independence:

  • After independence, white Europeans still controlled the government of South Africa. They established the racist system known as apartheid.
  • Apartheid was the system of racial segregation that was used in South Africa from 1948 until 1990. Black South Africans were required to use separate bathrooms, attend separate schools, carry identification passbooks, and even go to separate beaches.
  • Nelson Mandela
    • Black South African nationalist leader who fought against Apartheid.
    • He was imprisoned for 27 years by the white South African government.
    • Nelson Mandela became the first black president of South Africa after apartheid officially came to an end in 1990.

• Rwanda after independence:

  • During the 1990s, there was serious ethnic conflict between two groups in the African nation of Rwanda: the Hutus and the Tutsis.
  • 1994- The Hutus slaughtered 800,000 Tutsis in only a few months. This was an example of genocide and it was a major human rights violation.

Decolonization in Southeast Asia (Cambodia and Vietnam)

• Between 1953 and 1954, Cambodia and Vietnam both gained independence (self-government) from France.

• Ho Chi Minh- Nationalist leader who led an 8-year war against France to gain independence for Vietnam.

• Vietnam after independence:

  • Vietnam was divided into 2 countries: communist North Vietnam and democratic South Vietnam
  • After the Vietnam War, all of Vietnam was reunited to form one communist nation. Vietnam is still communist today.

• Cambodia after independence

  • After independence, Cambodia was ruled by a Communist group called the Khmer Rouge.
  • Pol Pot
    • He was the leader of the Khmer Rouge and ruler of Cambodia from 1976-1979.
    • He was a brutal dictator who denied his people of human rights.
    • Genocide- Pol Pot executed 2 million people within his nation (almost 20% of the population).
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Nationalist leaders of Decolonization

• Mohandas Gandhi, Kwame Nkrumah, Jomo Kenyatta, Nelson Mandela, and Ho Chi Minh.

THE MIDDLE EAST AFTER WORLD WAR II

Creation of Israel

• After World War II, part of the Holy Land was used to create the Jewish nation of Israel. This land had previously been promised to both the native Arabs and the Zionists.
• Palest