Voting Rights:

15th Amendment (1870)

• Timeline/Circumstances: Passed during Reconstruction to ensure African American men could vote after the Civil War. It was met with resistance in Southern states through discriminatory practices like literacy tests and poll taxes.

• Emphasis: Prohibits denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

• Impacts: Although significant, its impact was limited until further civil rights legislation like the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

19th Amendment (1920)

• Timeline/Circumstances: Culmination of the women's suffrage movement. Ratified after decades of activism and societal change following World War I.

• Emphasis: Prohibits denying the right to vote based on sex.

• Impacts: Empowered women politically and socially, paving the way for greater gender equality.

24th Amendment (1964)

• Timeline/Circumstances: Ratified during the Civil Rights Movement to eliminate economic barriers to voting.

• Emphasis: Prohibits poll taxes in federal elections.

• Impacts: Reduced financial discrimination in voting, particularly affecting African Americans and poor whites in the South.

26th Amendment (1971)

• Timeline/Circumstances: Passed during the Vietnam War, as citizens argued that if 18-year-olds could be drafted, they should also be able to vote.

• Emphasis: Lowered the voting age from 21 to 18.

• Impacts: Expanded the electorate, increasing the political power of younger generations.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

• Timeline/Circumstances: Signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, responding to widespread racial discrimination and the Selma-to-Montgomery marches.

• Emphasis: Outlawed discriminatory voting practices like literacy tests and authorized federal oversight of voter registration in certain areas.

• Impacts: Increased voter registration and participation among minorities, especially in the South. Seen as a landmark civil rights achievement.

Key Voting Supreme Court Cases:

Baker v. Carr (1962)

• Issue: Whether federal courts could decide cases on legislative apportionment.

• Decision: Established the principle of "one person, one vote," requiring equal representation in legislative districts.

• Impact: Addressed malapportionment and empowered federal courts to intervene in redistricting cases.

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

• Issue: Constitutionality of race-based gerrymandering.

• Decision: Race cannot be the predominant factor in drawing district lines.

• Impact: Limited racial gerrymandering but sparked debates over its implications for minority representation.

Shelby County v. Holder (2013)

• Issue: Constitutionality of preclearance requirements in the Voting Rights Act.

• Decision: Struck down the formula determining which jurisdictions required federal preclearance.

• Impact: Weakened the Voting Rights Act, leading to state-level voting restrictions.

Gerrymandering & Redistricting

• Gerrymandering: Manipulating district boundaries to favor a particular party or group.

• Redistricting: The process of redrawing electoral districts after each census.

• Impact: Gerrymandering undermines fair representation, while judicial interventions (like those in Baker and Shaw) attempt to ensure fairness.

Presidential Amendments:

20th Amendment (1933)

• Timeline/Circumstances: Shortened the "lame-duck" period by moving presidential inauguration from March to January 20.

• Emphasis: Ensured quicker transitions of power.

• Impacts: Increased governmental efficiency.

22nd Amendment (1951)

• Timeline/Circumstances: Ratified after Franklin D. Roosevelt’s four terms in office.

• Emphasis: Limits presidents to two terms.

• Impacts: Prevents prolonged executive power.

25th Amendment (1967)

• Timeline/Circumstances: Clarified presidential succession and procedures for handling presidential incapacitation.

• Emphasis: Details the transfer of power if the president dies, resigns, or is incapacitated.

• Impacts: Ensures continuity of government.

This summary captures key points about each amendment, legislation, and Supreme Court case while addressing their historical context and significance. Let me know if you'd like more detail on any specific topic!

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