Johnson to Carter

Johnson

Reason for Republican Party’s Defeat in 1964 Presidential Election

Lyndon B. Johnson (LBJ) had a significant political background that shaped his approach to leadership and governance. Notably, he refused to sign the Southern Manifesto, a document that opposed desegregation following the Supreme Court's Brown v. Board of Education decision. His political style was characterized by a commitment to civil rights and social justice, which resonated with many voters, contributing to his election victory.

Vietnam

Reasons for American Involvement in Vietnam

• Gulf of Tonkin Resolution: Instigated by reported attacks on U.S. ships, this legislative act was crucial as it authorized the use of military force in Vietnam without a formal declaration of war, significantly escalating U.S. involvement.

• Air War: Operation Rolling Thunder served as an extensive bombing campaign aimed at weakening North Vietnam's infrastructure and morale. The use of napalm and chemical defoliants, notably Agent Orange, aimed to disrupt supply lines and ground cover, but resulted in severe environmental and civilian casualties.

• Ground War: Led by General William Westmoreland, the U.S. adopted a “war of attrition” strategy that focused on inflicting casualties on the enemy rather than securing territory. Search and destroy missions became typical, leading to controversial instances of “fragging”, where soldiers intentionally harmed their own officers. Many South Vietnamese civilians became refugees, leading to dwindling support for the U.S. efforts among the population.

• Ho Chi Minh Trail: This vital supply route for North Vietnamese troops was never effectively closed by U.S. forces, facilitating ongoing military operations against the South.

• Public Opinion/Media & the War: The emergence of a credibility gap, where the government's assertions about the war increasingly conflicted with on-the-ground realities, played a critical role in shaping public perception. The Vietnam War became known as the “living room war” due to extensive television coverage, which brought graphic images of conflict into American homes. Prominent figures like Walter Cronkite shifted from being supportive to critical, reinforcing media bias against the war later in the conflict. Critics often labeled antiwar movements and protestors as partially responsible for the U.S. defeat.

• Student Protests: The New Left emerged during this period, with influential organizations like the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) advocating for civil rights and antiwar stances. Key events included the Port Huron Statement, the Free Speech Movement, and violent protests like at Kent State, alongside symbolic actions like burning draft cards to protest conscription.

• Soldiers: The draft affected many young Americans, with its implementation underscoring underlying issues of race and class disparities in military service.

• Tet Offensive: Launched in January 1968, this surprise attack aimed at seizing urban areas demonstrated North Vietnam’s ability to strike effectively, leading to disillusionment among the American public. The subsequent Paris Peace talks aimed to bring a negotiated end to the conflict.

• Nixon: The introduction of the Vietnamization strategy sought to reduce American troop numbers and transfer the burden of combat to South Vietnamese forces. Nixon’s covert actions, including the bombing of Cambodia and attempts to destroy the Ho Chi Minh Trail, were controversial yet aimed at bolstering U.S. positioning. Events like the My Lai Massacre and subsequent trials brought intense scrutiny to U.S. military conduct, culminating in the end of U.S. involvement and the signing of peace treaty terms in 1973, solidified by the War Powers Act that defined presidential powers regarding military engagements.

• Fall of Saigon (1975): President Gerald Ford’s refusal to assist South Vietnam in its final days marked a pivotal conclusion to the Vietnam conflict.

Great Society and 1960s Liberalism

The Great Society encompassed a series of domestic programs aimed at eliminating poverty and racial injustice. Key initiatives included the War on Poverty, which tackled economic disparities through various government-funded programs.

• Programs of the Great Society & Their Goals: These programs sought to address a wide range of social issues, including education, healthcare, and civil rights.

• Warren Court: The Supreme Court, under Chief Justice Earl Warren, played an influential role in advocating for civil liberties. Landmark cases, such as Mapp v. Ohio, Gideon v. Wainwright, Miranda v. Arizona, Engel v. Vitale, and Yates v. US, extended protections to those accused of crimes and addressed issues of school prayer and free speech.

1968: A Tumultuous Year

Significant events marked 1968: the Tet Offensive shocked the American public, LBJ’s decision to not seek reelection, and the assassinations of Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert Kennedy heightened national tensions. Moreover, the Democratic National Convention in Chicago was marred by violence, revealing deep divisions within the party.

• Martin Luther King Jr.: He framed the Vietnam War as a civil rights issue, linking it to issues of poverty and social justice.

• Election of 1968: The Democratic Party split between antiwar candidates, notably Robert Kennedy and Eugene McCarthy, creating factions that ultimately weakened their campaign. The assassination of Robert Kennedy added to the chaos, leading to the nomination of Hubert Humphrey, while Richard Nixon, alongside George Wallace, presented significantly different visions for America, resulting in Nixon’s electoral victory through a focus on restoring law and order and appealing to the so-called “silent majority.”

Women's Liberation Movement (2nd Wave Feminism)

The Second Wave of feminism sought to address a broad spectrum of issues, including workplace rights, reproductive rights, and social equality. Key figures like Betty Friedan highlighted these concerns through works such as The Feminine Mystique.

• National Organization for Women (NOW): Established to advocate for women’s rights and push for the enforcement of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, prohibiting employment discrimination.

• Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972: Aimed at preventing sex-based discrimination in educational institutions.

• Equal Rights Amendment (ERA): Proposed to guarantee equal legal rights for all citizens regardless of sex, but faced opposition from figures like Phyllis Schlafly leading to its eventual defeat.

• 1973 Roe v. Wade: Landmark decision that affirmed women's reproductive rights and became a significant point of contention in American politics.

Gay Liberation Movement

• Stonewall Riot: A pivotal moment in LGBTQ+ history, where patrons of the Stonewall Inn resisted police harassment, sparking the modern gay rights movement and inspiring organizations like the Gay Liberation Front.

Chicano Movement

Focused on addressing social injustices faced by Mexican Americans, significant figures like César Chávez led the United Farm Workers in pursuing better labor rights and conditions.

Native Americans

The American Indian Movement emerged to advocate for Native rights, gaining attention through events such as the occupation of Wounded Knee and Alcatraz Island.

Asian Americans

Various organizations formed to address issues faced by Asian Americans, including the removal of discriminatory quotas established in the Immigration Act of 1965, promoting greater equality and diversity in immigration.

Affirmative Action

The case of Bakke v. Regents of the University of California brought the issue of reverse discrimination to the forefront, examining the legality and ethics of affirmative action policies.

Environment

The growing environmental movement was marked by influential works like Rachel Carson's Silent Spring, alongside incidents such as the Three Mile Island nuclear accident. The establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in response showed a commitment to environmental protection, alongside initiatives like Earth Day, which aimed to raise awareness about ecological issues.

Nixon

Nixon and Domestic Issues

Nixon’s presidency was marked by a strategic Southern Strategy, aimed at gaining support from disaffected white voters in the South post-civil rights movement. His domestic policies included the establishment of the EPA, reforms under New Federalism, and significant scandals such as the Pentagon Papers and Watergate, which involved illicit activities that led to his eventual resignation. His notorious “I am not a crook” speech reflected the deepening scandal, culminating in impeachment hearings and his pardon by Ford, which further fueled public outrage.

Nixon and Foreign Policy

Nixon's foreign policy focused on détente, a relaxation of tensions, exemplified by his landmark visits to China and the USSR in 1972, which opened avenues for expanded trade and cooperation, along with arms control measures such as SALT I, showcasing a pragmatic approach to foreign relations designed to stabilize global tensions.

Ford

President Gerald Ford

Ford, who was never elected through the Electoral College, faced the daunting task of restoring public trust after the Watergate scandal. His decision to pardon Nixon was controversial and contributed to his perception as a part of the establishment rather than a reformer, jokingly referred to as “a Ford, not a Lincoln.”

Carter

Election of 1976

Carter’s campaign, framed as a Washington outsider, was influenced by the ongoing impacts of Ford’s pardon of Nixon. Significant issues included economic concerns, disarmament discussions such as SALT II, and foreign policy achievements marked by the Camp David Accords and the Panama Canal Treaty. However, challenges arose from diplomatic tensions in Central America, strained relations with Afghanistan, and the enduring crisis stemming from the Iranian Hostage Crisis, which ultimately hindered Carter’s political standing.

Changing Economy Over the Period
The economy experienced significant transformations highlighted by the 1970s oil embargo (OPEC), leading to stagflation that raised fundamental questions regarding Keynesian economic policies. Factors contributing to high inflation rates included declining unionized labor, shifting populations illustrated by the sunbelt versus snowbelt migration, and the economic strategies deployed by Ford’s WIN campaign and Carter's deregulation efforts, all amid rising unemployment, increasing government spending, and elevated interest rates that compounded the economic challenges of the era.