59 USA SINCE 1945

  1. INTRODUCTION.

The Cold War, which dominated the political landscape of the early postwar period, emerged from longstanding tensions and ideological differences between the Soviet Union (SU) and the United States (USA). These differences became more pronounced as World War II came to an end. The USA hoped to share with other countries its conception of liberty, equality and democracy. However, the SU had its own agenda. Moreover, the leadership change in the United States, when Harry Truman succeeded Roosevelt in April 1945 after the latter's death, contributed to the escalation of the Cold War.

After a brief introduction, I will discuss the main points which are the political, social and economic evolution of the USA since 1945 and its literary scene.

  1. THE USA SINCE 1945.

2.1. THE COLD WAR YEARS (1945-1960).

2.1.1. THE TRUMAN DOCTRINE AND CONTAINMENT.

Truman's greatest success in the postwar period was undoubtedly the European Recovery Program, more commonly known as the Marshall Plan. Following World War II, Europe was left in economic disarray, and the situation was further exacerbated by the harsh winter of 1946-47, which crippled many countries' recovery efforts. The economic devastation made it clear that Europe needed significant aid to rebuild and prevent the spread of communism, which was gaining traction in some areas due to the instability.

In response, in June 1947, U.S. Secretary of State George Marshall proposed a foreign aid program to help restore Europe's economy. The Marshall Plan offered over $12 billion in financial aid to 16 European nations, aiming to rebuild infrastructure, stimulate industrial production, and stabilize currencies. The Marshall Plan became a cornerstone of Truman's foreign policy and played a crucial role in the rapid recovery of Western Europe.

Another key element of Truman's postwar policy was the containment of Soviet influence, which led to the formulation of the Truman Doctrine. In 1947, Truman announced the Truman Doctrine, a policy aimed at containing the spread of communism, particularly in Europe and the Mediterranean. The policy of containment became the foundation of U.S. foreign policy during the Cold War. By 1949, Truman's policies culminated in the establishment of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization). NATO was a military alliance formed by 12 Western nations, including the United States, Canada, and several European countries, designed to provide collective security against Soviet aggression.

2.1.2. THE KOREAN WAR (1950-1953).

In June 1950, the Cold War took a dramatic turn when North Korean troops, under the leadership of Kim Il-sung, crossed the 38th parallel and launched a full-scale invasion of South Korea. This marked the beginning of the Korean War.

President Harry S. Truman, committed to containing the spread of communism, quickly responded to the North Korean aggression and decided to intervene militarily. U.S. troops were sent to defend the South.

The initial response was successful. However, the situation took a dramatic turn when China entered the war in late 1950. The Chinese intervention was a game changer. The U.N. forces were driven back into South Korea.

The war would continue for another two years, but by 1953, after significant diplomatic and military pressure, an armistice agreement was signed, effectively ending the fighting.

2.1.3. PEACE, GROWTH AND PROSPERITY.

When Dwight D. Eisenhower won the 1952 presidential election, the United States entered a period of relative stability following the turbulent years of war and economic depression. Eisenhower's leadership played a crucial role in helping bring the Korean War to an end. In 1953, shortly after his inauguration, an armistice was signed, effectively halting the conflict in Korea and restoring a tense peace along the 38th parallel, which separated North and South Korea. Although the war did not result in a clear victory for either side, the armistice maintained the division of Korea, and tranquillity was restored to the region.

Eisenhower’s presidency also marked a shift in American foreign and domestic policies, with a focus on military buildup and technological competition. Eisenhower encouraged the acceleration of both the arms race and the space race. This effort culminated in 1969 with the Apollo 11 mission, where American astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the first humans to land on the Moon.

Domestically, after 15 years of war, economic hardship, and social upheaval, Americans were increasingly focused on rebuilding the nation and achieving stable economic growth than on social reform.

However, the political landscape shifted in the 1960 elections where the Democrat candidate Kennedy defeated the Republican Nixon. 

2.2. THE 60s AND 70s.

2.2.1. THE NEW FRONTIER.

During John F. Kennedy's inaugural speech on January 20, 1961, he famously called for a new generation of Americans to step forward and take on the challenges of the world. His speech famously included the line, “Ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your country.” Kennedy's administration, often referred to as the "New Frontier," was marked by youthful energy, as his staff consisted largely of young, idealistic individuals eager to bring about reform and progress. However, this sense of optimism was soon tempered by questions regarding the competence and experience of the administration.

One of the most notable and disastrous events was the Bay of Pigs invasion in April 1961, which was a failed attempt to overthrow the communist regime of Fidel Castro in Cuba. The failure of the mission was a major embarrassment for the Kennedy administration and also worsened tensions with the Soviet Union.

Tragically, in November 1963, just a few years into his presidency, John F. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas. Conspiracy theories surrounding Kennedy’s assassination proliferated in the years following his death. Some speculated that capitalists, anti-communists, or even the mafia were involved. Others suggested communist or Cuban involvement.

2.2.2. JOHNSON AND THE GREAT SOCIETY.

After the tragic assassination of John F. Kennedy in 1963, his vice president, Lyndon B. Johnson, took office. Johnson's first major task was to push through the New Frontier bills, which were designed to address issues such as poverty, education, civil rights, and healthcare. His efforts culminated in what came to be known as the Great Society.

The Great Society is often regarded as one of the most ambitious reform agendas in U.S. history. Some of the most significant achievements of Johnson's Great Society included:

  • The Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in public accommodations, schools, and employment.

  • The National Teacher Corps.

  • The Medicare program in 1965, which provided health insurance for Americans aged 65 and older.

  • Economic reforms such as the rise of the minimum wage and Social Security benefits and coverage.

It was a total civil rights revolution.

2.2.3. SOCIAL CHANGES.

The 1960s were a transformative decade in American history, marked by sweeping social changes that reshaped many aspects of society. This era witnessed a powerful clash between the older, more conservative values of previous generations and the new, progressive movements championed by young people. The decade was defined by cultural upheaval, political activism, and a search for greater freedom and personal expression. Some of the most significant movements and shifts during this period included:

  • Sexual revolution, the birth control pill and abortion in 1973.

  • Drug culture and use of Marijuana and LDS.

  • The Vietnam War and the Rise of the New Left, which was antiwar and anticapitalist.

  • The Counterculture and the Rise of Feminism.

  • The Civil Rights Movement.

2.2.4. CRISIS: VIETNAM AND WATERGATE.

The U.S. involvement in Vietnam began under the Truman administration in the late 1940s, as part of the broader Cold War strategy of containment.

Under President John F. Kennedy, U.S. involvement in Vietnam deepened in the early 1960s. Kennedy sent military advisors, equipment, and supplies to the South Vietnamese government.

When Lyndon B. Johnson became president, U.S. involvement intensified since aid raids and soldiers occupied the territory.

However, Richard Nixon won the 1968 presidential election, promising to bring an end to the war with a strategy called "Vietnamization". Nixon's strategy involved a gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops. The Paris Peace Accords were signed in January 1973, leading to the withdrawal of the remaining U.S. troops from Vietnam. However, the agreement failed to secure a lasting peace and North Vietnam succeeded in reunifying the country. The unified country was renamed Vietnam and became a communist state.

Nixon's presidency was also marked by a series of scandals known as the Watergate Scandals which forced him to resign. Then, Gerald Ford was in power from 1974 to 1977 and after him, Jimmy Carter became the new President. 

2.3. RIGHT-WING RECONSTRUCTION: THE 80s AND EARLY 90s.

The election of Ronald Reagan as president in 1980 marked a significant shift in U.S. domestic and foreign policy. Reagan's domestic agenda focused on reducing the size of the federal government and promoting free-market principles. His administration sought to cut non-defense spending, particularly on social programs. At the same time, Reagan implemented significant tax cuts. This policy became known as Reaganomics, and while it sparked debate, it was credited with fostering a period of non-inflationary growth in the U.S. economy.

Reagan's approach to foreign policy was marked by a more aggressive stance against the Soviet Union, ending the policies followed by Presidents Nixon and Ford. Reagan also demonstrated a willingness to use military force in pursuit of U.S. interests, for instance, the invasion of Grenada or the air raid on Libya.

After Reagan's two terms, George H.W. Bush won the 1988 presidential election, largely riding on the legacy of peace and prosperity that he inherited from Reagan. However, his first years in office were difficult. He was criticized for excessive caution in foreign affairs, especially his response to the multifarious changes in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. As a consequence, in 1992, Bill Clinton became the new President of the USA.

2.4. GREAT EXPECTATIONS.

Clinton came to the White House on a wave of high expectations and changes. His first act was to end the U.S. military ban on homosexuals in the ranks. However, Democrats, for the first time since 1954, lost control of the two chambers of Congress and some of his legislative policies died there. Then in 1995, he managed a cease-fire in the Balkans, after the Daytona Agreement and in 1998 he made possible the historical peace agreement, the Good Friday Agreement, in Northern Ireland. On social affairs, he banned smoking in most workplaces. 

2.5. GEORGE W. BUSH.

George W. Bush took office in 2001. Early in his presidency, he pushed through a $1.3 trillion tax cut plan and the No Child Left Behind Act, a major education reform. He also withdrew the U.S. from several international treaties, including the Kyoto Protocol on global warming and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, which had been a cornerstone of nuclear stability with the Soviet Union for three decades. Additionally, he championed socially conservative policies, such as the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act.

After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, Bush declared a global "War on Terror" and ordered the invasion of Afghanistan to dismantle the Taliban government, defeat Al-Qaeda, and capture Osama bin Laden. He also signed the Patriot Act to enhance national security and surveillance. In 2003, he led the invasion of Iraq, citing the threat of weapons of mass destruction and defying the United Nations’ stance on the issue.

During his second term, Bush focused on free trade and attempted to pass immigration reform and Social Security, but both efforts failed. The wars in Afghanistan and Iraq continued to dominate his presidency. His handling of Hurricane Katrina and the controversy over the dismissal of U.S. attorneys hurt his popularity. The financial crisis of 2007-2008 further overshadowed his final years in office.

2.6. BARACK OBAMA.

Barack Obama became President in 2008, making history as the first African American, multiracial president, born in Hawaii. In his first term, he tackled the global financial crisis with a mix of policies, including a partial extension of the Bush tax cuts, health care reform, a major financial regulation overhaul, and the withdrawal of U.S. military forces from Iraq. Democrats held control of the Senate until 2010, when Republicans gained control of the House of Representatives.

In his second term, Obama focused on addressing climate change by signing an international agreement to limit carbon emissions. He also worked on diplomacy, negotiating with Cuba and Iran, and overseeing a significant reduction in U.S. military personnel in Afghanistan, although some troops remained. In 2014, Republicans gained control of the Senate, and Obama clashed with Congressional Republicans over key issues such as government spending, immigration, and other domestic policies.

2.7 DONALD TRUMP.

Donald Trump was inaugurated President of the USA in 2017, after a career as a businessman and reality television personality. One of his most controversial policies was the "zero-tolerance" policy, which restricted entry to the U.S. from several foreign countries, particularly targeting Muslim-majority nations. He also appointed a significant number of conservative federal judges, shaping the judiciary for years to come.

He faced one of the worst economic crisis in the USA history, which was intrinsically linked to his disastrous response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Finally, In January 2021, Joe Biden succeeded Trump as President, taking office amid the ongoing pandemic and a divided nation.

2.8. PRESENT TIME POLITICS.

From 2021 to 2024, U.S. politics has been shaped by ongoing divisions, major policy initiatives, and electoral battles. When Joe Biden took office in January 2021, his administration focused on tackling the COVID-19 pandemic through a robust vaccination campaign and economic recovery measures.

Heading into the 2024 presidential election, the political landscape remains contentious. Former President Donald Trump, despite facing legal challenges, emerged as a leading contender for the Republican nomination, while Biden, now running for re-election, faces a more polarized electorate. Issues such as economic recovery, climate change, healthcare, and the future of democracy will continue to dominate the political discourse as the U.S. heads toward a pivotal election year.

  1. CONTEMPORARY AMERICAN LITERATURE.

The years between the two World Wars are often described as a second flowering of American writing, a period when American literature reached new heights of maturity and diversity. The 1920s and 1930s saw the emergence of important works from authors such as William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway, and John Steinbeck, who produced memorable fiction. Meanwhile, poets like T.S. Eliot, Wallace Stevens, and William Carlos Williams contributed significant works of poetry.

After World War II, there was a gradual shift in the literary scene, as a new generation of writers emerged, shaped by the war's impact. This generation was different from the previous one in terms of ethnicity, region, and social background. Among the emerging voices were immigrants, African Americans, and women, the latter of whom began to find their voices more strongly, particularly with the rise of feminism. Despite the conservative social climate of the post-war years, some writers, such as Tennessee Williams, openly explored themes of sexuality, with Williams himself being a known homosexual. His dark themes and experimental style influenced the Beat writers like Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac, who became prominent in the 1950s. These writers, along with others, shaped the literary landscape of post-war America, creating a legacy of bold, diverse, and innovative works.

Let’s analyse the different types of literature that emerged in this period.

3.1. WAR NOVELISTS.

Following World War II, two distinct groups of war novelists responded to the profound cultural impact and technological horrors of the conflict. The older generation of writers focused on exploring fascist ideologies and the obsession with power, reflecting on the political and moral implications of the war. In contrast, the younger generation, deeply shaken by the bombing of Hiroshima and the threat of total human annihilation, found realism inadequate to capture the full scope of war’s devastation. These writers turned to more experimental forms, such as black comedy and absurd fantasy, to convey the surreal and existential terror of the post-war world.

As a result, a highly self-conscious form of fiction, known as metafiction, emerged. This genre reflected on the nature of storytelling itself, often blurring the lines between fiction and reality. Writers like Vladimir Nabokov and Jorge Luis Borges pushed the boundaries of narrative, adding linguistic and formal innovations to this trend. Both authors dismissed traditional realism as an exhausted form and instead wrote novels that "imitated" the structure of the novel itself, by an author who imitates the role of the author. 

3.2. BEAT WRITERS.

Beat writers, such as William S. Burroughs and Jack Kerouac, were significant practitioners of black humor and absurdist fiction, using these techniques to explore the disillusionment and alienation they felt in post-war society. They were called "Beat" writers because they felt "beaten" by societal constraints and the pressures of modern life. For them, living in the moment was vital, as they believed that fear of the future was part of the illness of modern society. Their work often rejected conventional narratives, focusing instead on spontaneous expression and experimentation with new literary forms, such as post-realism and the anti-novel.

For instance, the novels of Burroughs are a complete dream-like world filled with terrible nightmares. Or, Jack Kerouac's On the Road (1957) tells the story of a group of Beats traveling across America, but on a deeper level, it is about an inner journey—a search for meaning, freedom, and self-discovery.. 

3.3. SOCIAL REALISM.

Despite the rise of experimental literature, some contemporary novelists were reluctant to abandon social realism. Saul Bellow, a Jewish writer, was one such author whose work became a model for many new writers in the 1950s. Bellow developed a distinctive descriptive style that vividly portrayed the external world, making it feel incredibly real. His novels often depicted characters grappling with existential problems, many of whom viewed the world as chaotic and life as devoid of meaning or purpose.

3.4. SOUTHERN WRITERS.

The postwar Southern writers were deeply influenced by William Faulkner's complex exploration of human emotions, isolation, and the social dynamics of the American South. These writers shared a focus on themes like loneliness and the quest for self-identity, often employing grotesque imagery typical of the Southern Gothic tradition.

Flannery O'Connor stands out within this tradition. Her works often feature shocking violence, grotesque characters, and morally complex narratives, reflecting the darker aspects of human existence.

Carson McCullers, another key figure, similarly explored loneliness, but her tone and style differed. McCullers’ use of emotional distance makes the tragedies in her stories feel even more profound, highlighting the profound isolation of her characters.

Norman Mailer, while not strictly a Southern writer, fits into this postwar literary landscape with his focus on the complexities of power and identity. His novel The Naked and the Dead, set during WWII, is considered one of the definitive war novels, exploring the brutal and dehumanizing aspects of war. 

3.5. BLACK WRITERS.

African American writers such as James Baldwin and Ralph Ellison also made profound contributions to American literature, often focusing on the complexities of black life and identity in the United States.

James Baldwin's work explored the social and psychological dimensions of race, especially in the context of Harlem and the black church.

Ralph Ellison's Invisible Man is one of the most influential novels of the 20th century. While it addresses the harsh realities of racism, Ellison's novel also tackles broader themes of identity, self-discovery, and personal freedom.

Other significant black writers include Toni Morrison whose fiction is known for its lyrical, often poetic prose and its incorporation of elements of magic realism; and Alice Walker who rose to prominence with her feminist perspective on black identity.

3.6. MULTICULTURAL WRITING.

The dramatic loosening of immigration restrictions in the mid-1960s significantly impacted American literature, ushering in a period of rich multicultural writing during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s.

  • Jewish-American writers such as E.L. Doctorow became prominent in this period. His work offers a vivid portrayal of the turbulence of the 20th century, particularly in the context of ethnic and racial tensions.

  • Native American writers like N. Scott Momaday and Leslie Marmon Silko also gained widespread recognition during this time. Both explore themes of displacement, cultural survival, and the clash between modernity and tradition.

  • The 1970s and 80s also saw the rise of Hispanic-American writers: Rudolfo Anaya, Sandra Cisneros or Oscar Hijuelos. They brought forth voices representing the rich diversity of Latinx culture and experience.

3.7. POETRY.

Regarding poetry, Robert Lowell emerged as the leading poet of the 1940s, known for his confessional style, which focused on personal trauma, history, and the complexities of the human experience. Other important poets of the 1940s included Theodore Roethke, Karl Shapiro, and Randall Jarrell.

By the mid-1950s, poets began to turn to more romantic or prosaic models, often drawing from the works of Walt Whitman and D.H. Lawrence. However, one of the most significant shifts came with the emergence of the Beat Generation, a movement that rejected the materialism and conformity of postwar America. Allen Ginsberg became the most prominent poet of the Beat movement. His poem Howl (1955) became a groundbreaking work, written with extraordinary intensity and raw emotion. Ginsberg’s work was deeply influenced by William Blake, Walt Whitman, and French Surrealism, as well as his close relationships with writers like Jack Kerouac.

At the same time, a group of poets known as the Deep-Image Poets began to emerge, including Louis Simpson and James Dickey. These poets focused on the individual’s inner experience and often employed open forms in their work. They were influenced by European poets such as Federico García Lorca, Juan Ramón Jiménez, Pablo Neruda, and César Vallejo.

A group of New York poets, including John Ashbery and Elizabeth Bishop, were influenced by both the realities of daily life and the innovations of French Surrealism. Philip Levine and Robert Penn Warren were two other poets whose work was intensely autobiographical.

The 1960s also saw the rise of Black poets who brought a new, powerful voice to American poetry. Figures such as Langston Hughes, Gwendolyn Brooks, and Amiri Baraka helped to shape the poetic landscape by integrating African American experiences, history, and culture into their work. The influence of these poets continued into the late 1980s and 1990s, with younger poets emerging.

3.8. DRAMA.

In the post-war period, American theater saw the emergence of playwrights who carried forward the rich legacy of Eugene O'Neill: Arthur Miller and Tenessee Williams.

  • Arthur Miller is perhaps best known for his exploration of modern tragedy, often in the context of family dynamics and the pressures of societal expectations.

  • Tennessee Williams brought a tragic Southern vision to American theater, blending passion, lyricism, and psychological depth.

By the 1960s, Edward Albee emerged as a major figure in American theater, particularly through his work in the tradition of absurdist theater. Influenced by Samuel Beckett, Albee's plays explored themes of existential crisis, alienation, and the breakdown of communication.

As the 1960s progressed, the center of American theater began to shift from Broadway to Off-Broadway venues, allowing playwrights greater freedom to experiment with form and content. This shift paved the way for radical and innovative plays that challenged traditional theater conventions.

During the 1960s and beyond, Imamu Amiri Baraka and Ed Bullins became leading figures in the development of Black Nationalist theater, responding to the social and political upheaval of the Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power movement.

  1. TEACHING IMPLICATIONS.

Before finishing, I would like to comment on the teaching implications this topic might offer. 

To begin with, I would like to justify the topic in the English curriculum. According to our current legislation based on LOMLOE from 2020 the teaching of a foreign language must be based on the communicative approach and communication must be the essential part of a language learning process. In addition to this, the law also highlights the importance for students to know not only how to use the language but also about the language, for this reason, it is very important to learn the historical literature and cultural aspects of the language learned. In this context, this topic has a relevant role in the English curriculum as it can be a tool to transmit our students’ linguistic and cultural competences.

On top of that, the current law and the Council of Europe prioritize the development of the communicative competence and establish many methodological principles of great use for this topic. These principles and the communicative competence are also reflected in the Royal Decree of 29th of March and in the Order of 2nd of August of 2022.

Therefore, historical events and literature, so crucial to understanding the origins of English and its role as an international language, must be explained to our students in a very communicative way. The EFRL provides a key for that. It states that our role as teachers is that of facilitators. Then, our role would be to make this topic and the language as close as possible to our students' reality and to provide them with knowledge and resources for its understanding. In other words, to work from the known to the unknown. For instance, there are books and film adaptations of the medieval period which can be incredibly useful in our lessons to practice the different competences established by the curriculum.

Moreover, a whole cultural environment is created in the classroom by working on topics like this. Students can carry out different communicative tasks with specific communicative purposes. For instance, how to produce a piece of poetry, representing a film scene orally, or reading one of the works mentioned before which are usually appealing to them.

  1. CONCLUSION.

To conclude,  the writing of the post-war period had great diversity and reflected the disintegration of society and lack of positivism of a generation that suffered genocide, global conflict and destruction. Even nowadays, globalisation, uncertainty and terrorism are reflected in literature as well as in American politics.

  1. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

To write this topic, several references have been used, among which I would like to highlight:

  • Alexander, M. (2000). A History of English Literature.

  • Arnold, C. (2015). The Companion to British History.

  • Daiches, D. (1980). A Critical History of English Literature.

  • Sanders, A. (1996). The Short Oxford History of English Literature.

  • Conlin, J.P. (2013). The American Past: A Survey of American History.

  • Walker, M. (1988). The Literature of the United States of America.

Besides, legal sources have also been used to justify the topic:

  • LOMLOE Organic Law 3/2020, of 29th of December to improve the educational quality.

  • Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching and Assessment. Strasbourg.

  • Royal Decree 217/2022, of 29th of March, which establishes the basic curriculum of secondary compulsory education and bachillerato.

  • Order ECD 1172/2022, of 2nd of August, which passes the curriculum of secondary education and allows its application in the schools of Aragon.