American YAWP - Chapter 19 - American Empire

Introduction to American Foreign Policy

• This section provides an extensive examination of the crucial distinctions between American foreign policy decisions during the imperialist period and domestic affairs within the United States. Domestic matters, including those arising during the Gilded Age and the Reconstruction era, sharply contrast with the nation's strategies in international relations and colonialism. Furthermore, it highlights how domestic socio-economic issues influenced and were influenced by international engagements.

Understanding Imperialism

• Definition of Imperialism: The concept of imperialism denotes a significant historical period from 1800 to 1914, characterized by a limited number of industrialized nations—approximately 10 to 15—asserting dominance over diverse global territories. This dominance was typically exercised through various means: economic exploitation, political control, and military conquest.

  • Post-Civil War, the United States underwent a transformative shift in focus from internal national issues to global engagements, marking a significant turning point in its foreign policy. This shift signified an increase in international interests and the commitment to asserting U.S. influence abroad.

• Types of Imperialism:

  • Direct Imperialism: This approach involves unambiguous military conquest, resulting in direct control over the government and administrative operations of a territory.

  • Indirect Imperialism: This more subtle form occurs when a powerful nation leverages its economic and political influence over a weaker country without direct governance. This might include employing administrative and military backing to maintain favorable conditions for American businesses over local interests, often leading to economic manipulation and subjugation.

Key Concepts of American Imperialism

• Political Cartoon (1899): A significant illustration depicted Uncle Sam showcasing territories such as the Philippines, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Cuba, effectively symbolizing the expansionist aspirations of the United States during this era. This imagery links back to the doctrine of Manifest Destiny, reinforcing the belief that American expansionism was a natural and preordained endeavor, reflecting historical policies applied previously toward Native American populations.

  • Rationalizations for imperialism frequently portrayed industrialized nations as protective paternal figures, asserting moral superiority over 'childlike' nations, thus masking the underlying economic motivations tied to imperial ambitions under a guise of benevolence.

Economic Motivations in Intervention

• The bedrock of U.S. imperialistic endeavors was fundamentally tied to economic interests:

  • Resource Acquisition: A compelling drive to secure essential commodities such as minerals, oil, and agricultural products—particularly sugar—dominated the imperial agenda, supporting the burgeoning demands of America's industrial economy.

  • Market Accessibility: China emerged as a critical market, projected by U.S. policymakers to harbor vast economic opportunities. This ambition culminated in the development of the Open Door Policy, which sought to guarantee that all nations retained equal trading rights in China. It was a strategy designed to mitigate conflict among global powers and uphold American commercial interests as a priority.

  • The profound resentment within the Chinese populace regarding foreign exploitation and control fueled the narrative of the century of humiliation. This resentment ultimately led to the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, a dramatic uprising calling for the expulsion of foreign influences. In response, the United States, along with allied foreign powers, rallied to form a military coalition that quelled the rebellion, thereby safeguarding lucrative economic advantages in China.

Acquiring Resources: Guano Islands Example

• The Guano Island Act of 1856 played a pivotal role in enacting legislation that formalized the process through which U.S. citizens could lay claim to islands abundant in guano (bird droppings)—a highly valued fertilizer. This edict established a substantial legal foundation for subsequent territorial expansions promoted under the auspices of resource acquisition and exploitation.

American Interests in Latin America

• U.S. interventions in Latin America primarily adopted indirect methods, justified by the perceived need to investigate and protect American fiscal investments:

  • The Mexican Revolution (1910) serves as an illustrative case where U.S. military involvement was deemed essential to protecting American economic interests, particularly in the strategically pivotal port city of Veracruz.

  • Moreover, military incursions against revolutionary figures like Pancho Villa in 1916 accentuated the U.S. willingness to infringe upon national sovereignty to uphold economic objectives, reinforcing patterns of interventionism in the region.

Cultural Motivations for Imperialism

• The endeavor of missionary work was crucial, as early American settlers often included missionaries aiming to disseminate religious beliefs alongside American cultural values to indigenous populations.

  • Hawaii epitomizes this phenomenon, where, in addition to establishing sugar plantations, missionary efforts were mobilized to convert native Hawaiians to Christianity, blending economic ambitions with cultural imperialist undertakings.

The Spanish-American War (1898)

• Contextualizing Pre-War Events: The political chaos and unrest in Cuba posed a direct threat to U.S. strategic interests, heightening tensions on the international stage. The explosion of the USS Maine acted as a pivotal incident, igniting public outrage and catalyzing calls for military intervention, largely driven by sensationalist journalism labeled as yellow journalism.

• War Outcomes: The military engagement concluded swiftly in favor of the U.S., resulting in the acquisition of territories such as Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. Although Cuba ostensibly achieved formal independence, it was subjected to a form of indirect control by the U.S. through regulatory mechanisms like the Platt Amendment, which enabled American intervention in Cuban political affairs.

Controversy Over Philippine Acquisition

• The choice to acquire the Philippines triggered a vigorous and passionate debate concerning its congruity with American ideals of freedom and self-governance. Many Americans expressed deep concerns that this act of colonization contradicted the foundational principles of liberty and democracy.

  • The Philippine-American War (1899-1902) arose in direct opposition to this contentious acquisition. This conflict was characterized by guerrilla warfare, wherein Filipino forces actively resisted American colonial subjugation, reflecting the broader struggle for independence.

Theodore Roosevelt and Imperialism

• Following the assassination of President McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt emerged as a staunch advocate for imperialistic policies, advancing an assertive stance on the international front.

  • Roosevelt championed a significant naval expansion policy, advocating that a formidable navy was critical for maintaining and projecting U.S. influence worldwide, significantly informed by the writings of naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan on the importance of naval power.

  • Roosevelt famously articulated the doctrine of “Speak softly and carry a big stick,” encapsulating the idea that diplomatic negotiations should be paired with the readiness to employ military force when necessary. His Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine expanded U.S. involvement in Latin American nations, asserting the right to intervene to promote regional stability and safeguard American interests.

Women’s Role in Imperialism

• Women played an indispensable role in furthering imperialistic agendas, often acting as representatives for domestic businesses, missionaries, and educators who facilitated the dissemination of American cultural and commercial values abroad.

  • The dichotomy of ‘savage’ versus ‘civilized’ served as a frequent justification for imperialist actions, portraying women as essential participants in civilizing missions through consumer engagement and the promotion of American industrial products, thus interweaving gender roles with imperial ideology.

  • Influential anti-imperialist women, such as Jane Addams and Ida B. Wells, emerged as notable dissenters against the prevailing narratives favoring expansion, offering alternative perspectives that questioned the moral underpinnings of imperialism.

Immigration and the American Empire

• Impact of Imperialism on Immigration: The territorial acquisitions stemming from U.S. imperialism had profound effects on immigration patterns, notably leading to increased influxes from Southern and Eastern Europe between 1865 and 1920.

  • The backlash against these immigrant groups manifested in a rise of Nativism, characterized by fears that immigrants jeopardized national identity and economic stability. This climate of suspicion culminated in legislative measures such as the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882). This law initiated the first federal restrictions targeting immigration based on ethnicity, predominantly focused on curtailing the influx of Chinese laborers and establishing a precarious precedent for subsequent immigration policies.

  • Additional restrictive measures were forged, prohibiting entry based on factors such as poverty, mental health conditions, and other attributes, further solidifying a trend toward heightened immigration restrictions throughout this era.

  • The emergence of ethnic enclaves illustrated the ongoing struggle faced by immigrant populations balancing assimilation pressures against the desire to preserve their unique cultural identities. This interplay reflects the complex social dynamics within American society during the imperialist period, accentuating both the challenges and contributions of diverse immigrant communities.