Apush Unit 2-3

Five Things to Know about Period 2:

1. Spanish, French, Dutch, and British colonizers had different goals that impacted

the economic, political, and cultural development of their colonies and shaped

colonizers’ interactions with American Indian populations.

2. Conflict arose due to competition for resources among European rivals, and

between the Europeans and American Indians. Examples of American Indian

resistance to colonizers were the Pueblo Revolt, the Pequot War, and King

Philip’s War.

3. Early British colonies developed along the Atlantic coast with some regional

differences. New England colonies were settled by the Puritans, who lived in

small towns. The middle colonies were characterized by the export of cash crops,

less social rigidity, and more religious tolerance. The southern colonies developed

a plantation-based economy.

4. The African slave trade grew extensively throughout the eighteenth century. The

trading of slaves, cash crops, and manufactured goods between Africa, the

Americas, and Europe became known as Triangular Trade.

5. England used its colonies to obtain raw materials for its own manufacturing

purposes and wealth creation. There were, consequently, early examples of

colonial resentment and resistance. From Bacon’s Rebellion in 1676 to the Great

Awakening starting in the 1730s, the colonists begin to carve out a distinct

American identity.

Key Topics--Period 2 (1607-1754 C.E.)

Remember that the AP US History exam tests you on the depth of your knowledge, not

just your ability to recall facts. While we have provided brief definitions here, you will

need to know these terms in even more depth for the AP US History exam, including

how terms connect to broader historical themes and understandings.

European Colonization in the New World

● Samuel de Champlain: French explorer. Known as the “The Father of New

France.” Founded Quebec in 1608. Made the first accurate maps of what is

modern-day Eastern Canada.

● Louis Joliet: French-Canadian explorer. He and Jacques Marquette were the

first Europeans to explore and map the Mississippi River.

● Jacques Marquette: French Jesuit missionary. He and Louis Joliet were the

first Europeans to explore and map the Mississippi River. He founded the first

European settlement in Michigan in 1668.

● Sieur de La Salle: French explorer, also known as René-Robert Cavelier. He

surveyed the Great Lakes, Mississippi River, and Gulf of Mexico. Founded a

network of forts around the Great Lakes and in the modern-day Midwest.

● Dutch East India Company: The vehicle for the commercial ambitions of the

Netherlands in the New World, especially with regards to the fur trade. Led to the

founding of New Netherlands and New Amsterdam. See: Henry Hudson.

● Henry Hudson: English explorer. While working to find a Northwest Passage

for the Dutch East India Company, he sailed up the Hudson River, establishing

Dutch claims for what became New Amsterdam (modern-day New York).

● New Amsterdam: The Dutch capital of their New Netherland colony. Noted for

its tolerance of religious practices. It failed to attract enough settlers to compete

with the surrounding English colonies. Conquered by the English in 1664, who

renamed it New York City.

● Mestizos: A term for people of mixed Spanish and American Indian heritage.

● Catholicism: Adherence to the liturgy and practices of the Roman Catholic

Church. Catholics believe that the Bible alone is not sufficient for salvation, but

that it must be tied to certain rites and traditions. Catholics view the Pope as the

representative of Jesus on Earth. Historically, the Catholic Church was a major

landowner in both Europe and Latin America, and the Pope was often politically

more powerful than most monarchs. Contrast: Protestantism, Puritanism.

● Pueblo Revolt: A 1680 revolt against Spanish settlers in the modern-day

American Southwest. Led by a Pueblo man named Popé, it forced the Spanish to

abandon Santa Fe. A rare, decisive American Indian victory against European

colonization.

● Anglicanism: A form of Protestant Christianity that adheres to the liturgy of the

Anglican Church, also known as the Church of England. Founded in the sixteenth

century by King Henry VIII. See: Puritanism.

● Protestantism: An umbrella term for various Christian sects that broke away

from the Roman Catholic Church following the start of the Reformation in 1517.

Constitutes one of three major branches of Christianity, alongside Catholicism

and the Eastern Orthodox faith. Generally, Protestants believe that faith alone

merits salvation and good works are unnecessary. They reject the authority of the

Pope and believe the Bible is the sole authority. See: Puritanism.

● Charters: A document which Parliament used to grant exclusive rights and

privileges. Required for the legal sanction of a formal colony. Over time,

especially after the Glorious Revolution, most colonies surrendered their charters

and became royal colonies, which involved more centralized control from

England.

● Sir Humphrey Gilbert: English explorer. In the Elizabethan era, he founded

the first English colony at Newfoundland, which failed.

● Sir Walter Raleigh: One of the most important figures of the Elizabethan era.

Granted permission by Queen Elizabeth I to explore and colonize the New World

in exchange for one-fifth of all the gold and silver this venture obtained. Founded

Roanoke.

● Roanoke: Nicknamed “the Lost Colony.” First attempted English colony in the

New World. Founded in 1585 by Sir Walter Raleigh on an island off the

modern-day North Carolina coast. By 1590, its inhabitants had vanished for

reasons that still remain unknown.

Indentured Servitude

● Indentured servants: People who offered up five to seven years of their

freedom in exchange for passage to the New World. Limited rights while

servants, but considered free members of society upon release. During the

seventeenth century, nearly two-thirds of English immigrants were indentured

servants. Declined in favor of slavery, which was more profitable to planters.

● Bacon’s Rebellion: A failed 1676 rebellion in Jamestown. Led by Nathaniel

Bacon, indentured servants and slaves revolted against the Virginia Colony’s

aristocracy. It led to a strengthening of racially coded laws, such as the Virginia

Slave Codes of 1705, in order to divide impoverished white and black slaves, thus

safeguarding the planter aristocracy from future rebellions.

● Sir William Berkeley: Virginia governor during Bacon’s Rebellion (1676).

Ruled the colony based on the interests of the wealthy tobacco planters. In

addition, Berkeley advocated for good relations with the American Indians in

order to safeguard the beaver fur trade.

● Nathaniel Bacon: A young member of the House of Burgesses who capitalized

on his fellow backwoodsmen’s complaints by mobilizing them to form a citizens’

militia. Burned Jamestown during Bacon’s Rebellion. Died of dysentery in 1676.

● House of Burgesses: The first elected legislative assembly in the New World.

Established in 1619. It served as a political model for subsequent English

colonies. Initially, only landowners could vote, and only the Virginia Company

and the governor could rescind laws.

● Jamestown: Founded in Virginia in 1607, it was the first permanent English

settlement in the New World. After the statehouse was burned on four separate

occasions, the capital was moved to what became modern-day Williamsburg. See:

John Smith, Roanoke.

Slavery

● Triangular Trade: A transatlantic trade network. New World colonies exported

raw materials such as sugar and cotton to England. There, these materials were

transformed into rum and textiles. Europeans sold these manufactured goods,

including at African ports, in exchange for slaves, who would then be sold in the

colonies as farm workers, thus completing the triangle.

● Middle Passage: The leg of Triangular Trade which transported Africans across

the Atlantic Ocean to the New World. Approximately 20 percent of enslaved

Africans died before reaching the New World due to poor conditions,

dehydration, and disease.

● Stono Rebellion: A 1739 slave uprising in Stono, South Carolina. Led to the

deaths of more than four dozen colonists and as many as 200 African slaves.

Prompted South Carolina’s proprietors to create a stricter slave code.

English Conflicts with American Indians

● Virginia Company: Chartered in 1606 by King James I in order to settle the

North American eastern coastline. Established a headright system (1618) and the

House of Burgesses (1619). By 1624, a lack of profit forced the company to

concede its charter to the crown, who appointed a royal governor.

● John Smith: A pivotal leader at Jamestown. Negotiated peace between the

settlers and local American Indians. Famously stated “He that will not work shall

not eat,” forcing the Jamestown colonists to work to save their then-failing

colony. Returned to England in 1609 after being injured in a gunpowder

explosion.

● Powhatan: The name for an American Indian tribe neighboring Jamestown.

Also the common name for its chief (formally known as Wahunsenacawh) in the

1610s, who was father to Pocahontas and brother to Opechancanough.

● Pocahontas: American Indian woman who brokered peace between her tribe

and the early settlers at Jamestown, such as John Smith. Married John Rolfe in

1614.

● Opechancanough: Planned and executed a surprise attack in 1622 on

Jamestown that massacred a fourth of the total Virginia colonists in one day. The

resulting retaliation by the English settlers devastated his tribe, altering the

regional balance of power. See: Powhatan.

● Roger Williams: A Protestant theologian in during the 1630s. Believed

American Indians should be treated justly. Advocated the then-radical notion of

separation of church and state, believing government involvement in religion

amounted to forced worship. Banished from Massachusetts in 1636, he and his

followers went on to found Rhode Island.

● Pequot War: A war in New England in 1636–1638. Fought between the Pequot

tribe and the English colonists with their American Indian allies. A catastrophic

defeat for the Pequot tribe. Famous for the Mystic massacre, where over 500

Pequot were slaughtered in a blaze.

● King Philip’s War: Also known as Metacom’s War, King Philip’s War

(1675–1678) was an ongoing battle between English colonists and the American

Indian inhabitants of New England. The English victory expanded their access to

land that was previously inhabited by the natives.

The Development of English Colonial Societies in North America

● Headright system: A policy where a colonial government grants a set amount

of land to any settler who paid for their own—or someone else’s—passage to the

New World.

● John Rolfe: An influential Virginian leader. In 1611, he introduced his fellow

farmers to tobacco cultivation, which provided the economic basis for their

colony’s survival. Married Pocahontas.

● Proprietary colony: A colony in which the crown allotted land and

governmental command to one person. Maryland under Lord Baltimore is an

example of it.

● Lord Baltimore: The noble title for Cecilius Calvert. He founded Maryland in

1632 as a haven for his fellow Catholics, and advocated for peaceful coexistence

between Catholics and Protestants. Overthrown during the Glorious Revolution

by Protestant rebels.

● Puritanism: A religious code and societal organization that split off from

Anglicanism. Puritans believed that their religious and social structures were

ideal. They thought that the Church of England’s ceremonies and teachings were

too reminiscent of Catholicism and that true believers ought to read the Bible for

themselves and listen to the sermons of an educated clergy.

● Pilgrims: The first Puritans to colonize the New World. Settled at Plymouth.

Members of a minority group of Puritans known as separatists.

● Separatists: A minority Puritan faction that wished to abandon the Church of

England and form their own independent church cleansed of any lingering

Catholicism. After a failed 1607–1608 effort in the Netherlands, that failed due to

fears over the local culture corrupting their children, they boarded the Mayflower

and founded Plymouth colony.

● Plymouth: A colony in modern-day Cape Cod, founded by the Pilgrims in 1620.

By 1691, it was merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony to form the crown

colony of the Province of Massachusetts Bay.

● Mayflower Compact: The first written form of government in the modern-day

United States. Drafted by the Pilgrims, it was an agreement to establish a secular

body that would administer the leadership of the Plymouth colony.

● Squanto: An American Indian who learned English after having been captured

and transported to England. Later returned to the New World. He showed the

Pilgrims how to plant corn and where to fish, enabling them to survive early on.

● Massachusetts Bay Company: Founded in 1629 by a collective of London

financiers, who advocated for the Puritan cause and wanted to profit from

American Indian trade.

● Body of Liberties: Issued by the Massachusetts General Court in 1641, it

delineated the liberties and duties of Massachusetts settlers. It also allowed for

free speech, assembly, and due process; it also authorized the death penalty for

the worship of false gods, blasphemy, and witchcraft.

● Great Migration of the 1630s: A period where many Puritan families moved

across the Atlantic. By 1642, approximately 20,000 Puritans had immigrated to

Massachusetts.

● Anne Hutchinson: A Puritan colonist in Massachusetts. Tried and convicted of

heresy in the 1630s. She asserted that local ministers were erroneous in believing

that good deeds and church attendance saved one’s soul. She believed that faith

alone merited salvation.

● Thomas Hooker: Puritan leader. Founded a settlement at Hartford,

Connecticut (1636) after dissenting from the Massachusetts authorities. See: the

Fundamental Orders of Connecticut.

● Fundamental Orders of Connecticut: The first “constitution” in colonial

America, fully established the Hartford government in 1639. While it modeled

itself after the government of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the document—in a

key innovation—called for the power of government to be derived from the

governed, who did not need to be church members to vote.

● Charter of Liberties and Privileges: Drafted in 1683 by a New York

assembly, following the colony’s takeover by the English. It mandated elections,

and reinforced traditional English liberties such as trial by jury, security of

property, and religious tolerance for Protestant churches.

● Fundamental Constitution of Carolina: Issued by the proprietors of

Carolina in 1669, who aimed to create a feudal society composed of nobles, serfs,

and slaves. Four-fifths of the land was owned by the planters. Colonial leaders

established an elected assembly and a headright system to attract immigrants,

who were allowed to own the remaining land. It allowed for religious tolerance,

both for Christian dissenters and Jewish people.

● William Penn: Founded Pennsylvania in 1683. A Quaker, Penn believed in

equality between people. He owned all the colony’s land and sold it to settlers at

low costs, instead of developing a headright system. The religious tolerance,

excellent climate, and low cost of land appealed to immigrants from across

Western Europe. See: Quaker

● Quakers: Formally known as the “Society of Friends.” A Protestant church that

advocated that everyone was equal, including women, Africans, and American

Indians. See: William Penn.

● James Oglethorpe: A wealthy reformer who founded Georgia in 1733 as a

haven for those who had been imprisoned in England as debtors. He initially

banned slavery and alcohol from the colony, which led to many disputes among

settlers. In 1751, however, the colony was surrendered to the crown, which

repealed both bans.

Characteristics of English Colonial Societies

● Mercantilism: The theory that a government should control economic pursuits

to further a nation’s national power, especially in the acquisition of silver and

gold. Prominent in Europe from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries.

Replaced by free trade. See: laissez-faire.

● Navigation Acts: Laws passed in 1651 as measure to supersede Dutch control of

international trade. Colonial commodities such as tobacco and sugar had to be

exported to England in English ships and sold in English ports before they could

be re-exported to other nations’ markets. Spurred colonial resentment in the

long-term. See: mercantilism.

● Glorious Revolution: The 1688 overthrow of the Catholic King James II by the

English Parliament. He was replaced by his Protestant daughter Mary II and her

Dutch husband, William III of Orange. Led to both celebration and unrest

throughout the American colonies.

● Toleration Act of 1689: An English law that called for the free worship of most

Protestants, not only Puritans. Forced on Massachusetts in 1691 after it was made

a royal colony, revoking its earlier Puritan-centric charter.

● Great Awakening: A Protestant religious movement that took place across the

Thirteen Colonies during the 1730s and 1740s. It indirectly helped spur religious

tolerance and led to the founding of many universities. See: Second Great

Awakening.

● Jonathan Edwards: A preacher credited for sparking the (First) Great

Awakening. His sermons encouraged parishioners to repent of their sins and

obey God’s word in order to earn mercy. He delivered his most famous sermon,

“Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” in 1741.

● George Whitefield: A traveling New Light preacher during the Great

Awakening. Known for his sermons on the “fire and brimstone” eternity that all

sinners would face if they did not publicly confess their sins. Undermined the

power and prestige of Old Light ministers by proclaiming that ordinary people

could understand Christian doctrine without the clergy’s guidance.

Six Things to Know about Period 3:

1. After the British and the colonists won the French and Indian War, England faced

enormous debt. The resulting taxation of the colonists led to resentment and

tension with England. The Boston Massacre and Boston Tea Party were two

notable examples of this increasingly troubled relationship.

2. Colonial leaders called for resistance to imperial rule and demanded that their

rights be respected. New experiments with democracy and republican forms of

government came about with the Continental Congress, the ideas of Benjamin

Franklin and Thomas Paine, and, ultimately, the Declaration of Independence.

3. After the American Revolution, the Articles of Confederation united the newly

formed states. However, the federal government remained very weak, which was

made evident by Shay’s Rebellion. Debates on how to govern the new country

culminated in the calling of the Constitutional Convention.

4. Throughout the presidencies of George Washington and John Adams, the

Federalists and Anti-Federalists debated on how the young nation should manage

its economy, foreign affairs, and internal relations with the new states. The

Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, favored a stronger central government.

The Anti-Federalists, led by Thomas Jefferson, favored giving more power to the

individual states.

5. The development of a distinct American foreign policy emerged. George

Washington warned against becoming entangled in foreign affairs, such as the

French Revolution, and preferred diplomatic initiatives, like Jay’s Treaty and

Pinckney’s Treaty, to deal with continued European presence in America.

6. Migration trends and competition over boundaries, resources, and trade fueled

ethnic tensions and sparked nativist sentiments. The United States’ relationship

with American Indian groups continued to evolve, often centering on conflict

regarding native lands.

Key Topics--Period 3 (1754-1800 C.E.)

Remember that the AP US History exam tests you on the depth of your knowledge, not

just your ability to recall facts. While we have provided brief definitions here, you will

need to know these terms in even more depth for the AP US History exam, including

how terms connect to broader historical themes and understandings.

The French and Indian War

● French and Indian War: 1754–1763. Name for the North American theater of

the Seven Years’ War. Featured Britain and France, and their colonial and native

allies, fighting for control of North America east of the Mississippi. While the

British won, they incurred massive debts in the process. This led to trouble down

the road for them. See: Treaty of Paris (1763).

● George Washington: First President. Served 1789–1797. A land surveyor from

Virginia, he led colonial militia as an officer in the French and Indian War. Led

the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War at battles such as

Valley Forge and Yorktown. Later presided over the Continental Congress.

Among many other acts, he established the informal two-term limit for

presidents by declining to run for reelection in 1796. See: Farewell Address.

● Benjamin Franklin: Founding Father. Invented bifocals, the Franklin stove,

the lightning rod, and the swivel chair. An early campaigner for American unity,

he served as the first U.S. Ambassador to France (1776–1785). Signed both the

Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. Died 1790 at age 84. See:

Albany Plan of Union.

● Albany Plan of Union: A proposal by the Albany Congress, under the guidance

of Benjamin Franklin, during the French and Indian War. It called for a

confederation of colonies to defend against attack by European and native foes.

Rejected by the colonial assemblies due to concern over the central consolidation

of power, and by the British government because they felt it allowed for too much

colonial independence.

● William Pitt: Also known as William Pitt the Elder. A Whig statesman who

shifted British efforts in the French and Indian War from colonial skirmishes to

the capturing of Canada, with key victories in Louisbourg (1758), Quebec (1759),

and Montreal (1760). This effectively removed France’s presence from North

America.

● Treaty of Paris (1763): Treaty which capped off the French and Indian War.

The British took control of French Canada and Spanish Florida, effectively

removing France’s presence from North America.

Post-War Conflicts with American Indians

● Pontiac’s Rebellion: An 18-month conflict with the American Indians of the

Ohio Valley. Led by Chief Pontiac, leader of the Ottawa people, natives attacked

British colonial settlements from the Great Lakes to Virginia. Resulted in the

Proclamation of 1763.

● Proclamation of 1763: In reaction to Pontiac’s Rebellion, King George III

barred American colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains. The

British saw this as a quick and easy way to make peace while securing the fur

trade. Colonists, however, were incensed by the crown’s interference in their

ability to settle land they had won in the French and Indian War. The colonists

often ignored it. An important contributing factor to the American Revolution.

Effects of the French and Indian War

● Currency Act: A law passed by Parliament in 1764. It limited the use of colonial

paper money, in order to protect British merchants from depreciation. While not

a major contributing factor to the American Revolution, it did signify growing

British interest in regulating the colonies.

● Sugar Act: A 1764 law which raised the previous amount demanded on

sweeteners (molasses and sugar). Part of British attempts to pay off debt from the

French and Indian War.

● Quartering Act: A 1765 act of Parliament that required colonial citizens to

provide room and board for British soldiers stationed in America. Wildly

unpopular. This practice was later banned by the Third Amendment to the

Constitution.

● Stamp Act: A pivotal 1765 law. It required that all paper in the colonies, from

death and marriage certificates to newspapers, have a stamp affixed signifying

that the required tax had been paid. See: Stamp Act Congress.

● George Grenville: British Prime Minister who passed the Currency, Sugar,

Quartering, and Stamp Acts. He felt the colonists were being asked to pay only

their fair share of the debt from the French and Indian War.

● Patrick Henry: Founding Father. Young Virginian lawyer and Patriot. In

reaction to the Stamp Act, he accused the British government of usurping the

rights guaranteed to colonists as Englishmen. He encouraged his fellow leaders to

insist that Virginians be taxed only by Virginians, not by some distant royal

authority. Later an Anti-Federalist.

● James Otis: A Patriot from Massachusetts. Coined the phrase “Taxation

without representation is tyranny,” which is popularly abbreviated as “no

taxation without representation.”

● Stamp Act Congress: A meeting of representatives of nine of the Thirteen

Colonies. They sent word to England that only colonial legislatures had the

authority to tax the colonists. Repealed in 1766 and replaced with the Declaratory

Act.

● Sons and Daughters of Liberty: A group of Patriot activists who intimidated

tax collectors by attacking their homes, burning them in effigy, and even tarring

and feathering them. They also ransacked warehouses that held stamps and

burned them to the ground.

● Samuel Adams: Founding Father. Led the Sons and Daughters of Liberty. Also

penned Massachusetts Circular Letter in 1768, which demanded that the

Townshend Act be repealed.

● Declaratory Act: Replaced the Stamp Act. A 1766 law that maintained the right

of the crown to tax the colonies, as Parliament’s authority was identical in both

Britain and North America.

● Townshend Acts: A revenue plan passed by Parliament in 1767. It imposed

harsher taxes on the purveyors of imported goods such as glass, paper, and tea.

In addition, a special board of customs officials was appointed to enforce writs of

assistance. Repealed 1770.

● Writs of assistance: Authorized under the Townshend Acts, writs allowed

customs officials to search colonial homes, businesses, and warehouses for

smuggled goods without a warrant from a judge. Led to the Massachusetts

Circular Letter.

● John Dickinson: Founding Father from Pennsylvania. He wrote a series of

essays called “Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania,” which rekindled interest

in the issue of taxation without representation during the Townshend Acts. He

oversaw the drafting of the Articles of Confederation.

● Massachusetts Circular Letter: Penned by Samuel Adams, it was a response

to the Townshend Acts and the resulting writs of assistance. It demanded the

Townshend Act be immediately repealed. Widely circulated, it rejuvenated

boycotts of British goods.

● Boston Massacre: A landmark incident on March 5, 1770 that helped alienate

the American people from Parliament and King George III. Angered by the

Quartering Act, a crowd of Bostonians harassed the British troops guarding a

local customs house. The guards fired upon the crowd, killing five and wounding

six protesters. John Adams would defend the guards tried for this incident and

secure their acquittal.

● Committees of Correspondence: A means by which Patriots could circulate

letters of protest against British policies. It functioned as a kind of shadow

opposition government in the runup to the American Revolutionary War. Vital in

organizing the Continental Congress.

● Gaspee Affair: The Gaspee was a British warship commissioned to capture

vessels carrying smuggled goods before they reached the colonies. The Gaspee

ran aground on the shores of Rhode Island. The Sons of Liberty set fire to the

boat, and event celebrated throughout coastal colonial towns as a victory for the

tax-burdened consumer.

● Tea Act: A 1773 law that actually lowered the price of tea, but colonists were now

wary of any British attempt to collect revenue. They refused to purchase the tea.

See: Boston Tea Party.

● Boston Tea Party: In protest of the Tea Act, Bostonians dressed as American

Indians boarded British merchant ship and dumped their tea into Boston Harbor.

Resulted in closure of the Harbor, the colonial charter of Massachusetts being

revoked, and the Quartering Act.

● Quebec Act: A 1774 act of Parliament that which allowed the former French

region to expand its borders, taking away potential lands from colonists in the

Ohio River Valley. Even more offensive to the largely Protestant colonists, it also

allowed Quebec citizens to practice Catholicism freely. See: Intolerable Acts.

● Intolerable Acts: A colonial term for a number of punitive laws passed by the

British Parliament in response to the Boston Tea Party. See: Quebec Act, Tea Act,

Thomas Gage.

The American Revolution

● Declaration and Resolves: An attempt by the First Continental Congress to

reconcile the Thirteen Colonies with the British Empire. Addressed to King

George III, it urged him to correct the wrongs incurred by the colonists while

simultaneously acknowledging the authority of Parliament to regulate colonial

trade and commerce.

● First Continental Congress: Organized in 1774 as a response to the

Intolerable Acts, colonial leaders managed to urge their colonies to expand

military reserves and organize boycotts of British goods in the meantime. See:

Declaration and Resolves.

● Thomas Gage: British general. Led the British response to Pontiac’s Rebellion.

Served as military governor of Massachusetts (1774–1775) to enforce the

Intolerable Acts. Led British forces at Lexington and Concord, as well as Bunker

Hill. Replaced in 1775 by William Howe.

● American Revolution: An anti-colonial revolt (1765–1773) where the Thirteen

Colonies threw off the yoke of the British Empire and established the United

States of America. Distinct from but related to the American Revolutionary War

(1775–1783). Its beginning is traced to the aftermath of the French and Indian

War, when Britain sought to resolve the debt that war had created.

● Declaration of the Causes and Necessities of Taking Up Arms: A

document published by the Continental Congress on July 6, 1775. It justified the

raising of a professional colonial military force and urged King George III a

second time to consider colonial grievances.

● King George III: King of Great Britain and Ireland. He reigned from 1760 to

1820. Dismissed attempts by the Second Continental Congress to peacefully

resolve their conflict with Parliament on the grounds that the colonies had no

authority to form such a body.

● Olive Branch Petition: A July 1775 statement by the Continental Congress that

reasserted colonial loyalty to King George III and asked him to intervene with

Parliament on the colonies’ behalf. The king refused to recognize the legitimacy of

the Congress to make any such request.

● Thomas Paine: An English-born political activist in the American and French

Revolutions. Author of Common Sense.

● Common Sense: A pamphlet that used Enlightenment philosophy to argue that

it would be contrary to common sense to allow British injustices to continue.

Written and published in January 1776 by Thomas Paine.

● Enlightenment: An eighteenth-century philosophical and intellectual

movement which prized reason. It challenged traditional notions of reflexive

obedience to the Church and to monarchy, and laid the groundwork for the

scientific revolution and Industrial Revolution. See: Benjamin Franklin, Common

Sense, Declaration of Independence, French Revolution.

● Second Continental Congress: An assembly of delegates from across the

Thirteen colonies (1775–1781). It passed the Declaration of Independence and the

Articles of Confederation.

● Richard Henry Lee: A delegate at the First and Second Continental Congress.

On June 7, 1776, he famously made an official motion calling for the colonies to

declare independence.

● Thomas Jefferson: Founding Father. Authored the Declaration of the

Independence. First Secretary of State (1779–1781). Second Vice President

(1797–1801). Helped found the Democratic-Republican Party in 1794.

Co-authored the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.

● Declaration of Independence: Announced the colonies’ official break from

England, making the United States a country in its own right. It contained a

preamble that heavily reflected Enlightenment philosophy regarding natural

rights, as well as 27 grievances and charges of wrongdoing directed at the crown

and Parliament. See: Gettysburg Address.

● Patriots: Activists for independence from the British Empire. Mostly young New

Englanders and Virginians. Often did not have significant status in society. Many

volunteered their time to the Continental Army, typically without pay.

● Tories: A British political party which controlled Parliament throughout the

American Revolutionary War. Led by Lord North. Lost a vote of no confidence in

March 1782 following the British defeat at the Siege of Yorktown. Power was

transferred to the Whigs.

● Benedict Arnold: A general in the American Revolutionary War. He

participated in the Capture of Fort Ticonderoga and the Battle of Saratoga. Most

infamously remembered for defection to the British, which caused his name to

become a byword for treason.

● Horatio Gates: American general in the Revolutionary War. He shares credit

with Benedict Arnold for winning the most important battle of the war: the Battle

of Saratoga.

● Battle of Saratoga: An umbrella term for two battles fought 18 days apart in

Autumn 1777. British forces under General Burgoyne attacked U.S. forces led by

Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold. The British were eventually forced to retreat.

News of the American victory led to the introduction of French aid, reshaping the

entire war.

● Whigs: A British political party which took control of Parliament from the

Tories, and negotiated peace terms with the colonists. Distinct from the later

American political party of the same name.

● Treaty of Paris (1783): Treaty which officially ended the American

Revolutionary War. The U.S. agreed to repay debts to British merchants and

promised not to punish Loyalists who chose to remain in the United States.

Formal recognition of the United States as an independent country. Set the

geographic boundaries between the British Empire and the United States.

American Indians During and After the Revolution

● Miami Confederacy: A collection of American Indian tribes in the eighteenth

century. In the Northwest Indian War (1785–1795), a military alliance led by

Little Turtle and Blue Jacket attempted to resist the expansion of the U.S. into

the Old Northwest territory.

● Little Turtle: War chief of the Miami Confederacy during the Northwest Indian

War. Along with Blue Jacket, he informed Americans that the Confederacy

considered the Ohio River the northwestern boundary of the newfound United

States. At St. Clair’s Defeat, his troops killed over a thousand U.S. officers and

soldiers in the largest American Indian victory in history. See: Battle of Fallen

Timbers.

● Battle of Fallen Timbers: The final battle of the Northwest Indian War,

fought against the Miami Confederacy. Led to the Treaty of Greenville. The forces

under “Mad Anthony” Wayne, recruited after St. Clair’s Defeat, would form the

core of what became the United States Army.

● Treaty of Greenville: A 1795 treaty in which 12 American Indian tribes ceded

vast areas of the Old Northwest to the federal government, including most of

what is now Indiana and Ohio. In return, the tribes of the Miami Confederacy

were given an initial payment of $20,000 and an annual payment of $9,000.

Ended the Northwest Indian War.

The Impact of the Enlightenment

● John Locke: A British philosopher whose theory of natural rights challenged

the absolute and divine rule of kings and queens by asserting that all men should

be ruled by natural laws, and that sovereignty was derived from the will of those

governed. Locke went on to assert that the governed have a responsibility to rebel

against a government that fails to protect the natural rights of life, liberty, and

property. See: Enlightenment.

● John Adams: Second President. Served 1791–1801. First Vice President

(1789–1797). Lobbied for declaring independence at the Continental Congress.

Signed the Alien and Sedition Acts, and built up the armed forces during the

Quasi-War. Died on July 4, 1826, the same day as his friend and political rival

Thomas Jefferson. See: Boston Massacre, midnight judges.

● Separation of powers: An Enlightenment concept advocated by the French

philosopher Montesquieu in his seminal 1748 work The Spirit of the Laws. It is

the idea that a government’s power should be divided into multiple branches that

balance and check each other.

● Direct democracy: A form of democracy in which the people directly vote on

matters of policy, rather than electing delegates to decide for them as in

representative democracy.

The Articles of Confederation

● Articles of Confederation: The first constitution of the U.S., drafted alongside

the Declaration of Independence but by a separate committee. It strongly favored

states’ rights and forbid Congress from levying taxes. Ratified in 1781. Replaced

by the Constitution following Shays’ Rebellion. See: Northwest Ordinance of

1787.

● Supermajority: A majority greater than one half, typically two-thirds.

● Land Ordinance of 1785: Established the basis for the Public Land Survey

System whereby settlers could purchase land in the undeveloped West. It

required new townships to set aside a parcel of land reserved for public

education. At this time, Congress did not have the power to raise revenue via

taxes, so this Ordinance created a local mechanism for funding public education.

See: Department of Education.

● Northwest Ordinance of 1785: A rare triumph under the Articles of

Confederation, it established guidelines for attaining statehood: territories with

at least 60,000 people could apply for statehood. If accepted by Congress, the

new state would have equal status with other states. It banned slavery north of

the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi, thereby guaranteeing future free states

in the Midwest.

● Daniel Shays: Massachusetts farmer and Revolutionary War veteran. He led a

short-lived populist uprising that demanded tax and debt relief. Pardoned in

1788. See: Shays’ Rebellion.

● Shays’ Rebellion: An insurrection in Massachusetts (1786–1787) over

oppressive taxes and debt collectors. Led by Daniel Shays. It helped spur the

Constitutional Convention.

The Constitutional Convention

● James Madison: Founding Father from Virginia. Known as the “Father of the

Constitution” for his role in drafting it and the Bill of Rights. Contributed to the

Federalist Papers. Co-founded the Democratic-Republican Party.

● Alexander Hamilton: Founding Father and co-author of the Federalist Papers.

As the first Secretary of the Treasury, he set out to repair the nation’s credit and

overall financial health. Favored a strong executive, strong military, and political

centralization. See: Whiskey Rebellion.

● Constitutional Convention: A meeting that took place in Philadelphia from

May 25 to September 17, 1787. Ostensibly called to amend the Articles of

Confederation, the majority of the delegates arrived with the intention to simply

draft a new constitution, one which is still in use to the modern-day. See:

Connecticut Compromise, New Jersey Plan, Virginia Plan.

● Robert Morris: Founding Father and noted financier of the American

Revolution. Signed the Declaration, the Articles of Confederation, and the

Constitution. Declined to become the first Treasury Secretary, instead

recommending Alexander Hamilton.

● Charles Pinckney: A South Carolinian notable for his role at the Constitutional

Convention, where he helped introduce the Fugitive Slave Clause and the “no

religious test” clause for public officers. Later negotiated Pinckney’s Treaty with

Spain.

● George Mason: Founding Father from Virginia. One of three delegates at the

Constitutional Convention who refused to sign the final document. He objected to

its lack of a Bill of Rights, and wanted an immediate end to the slave trade (while

supporting slavery itself). His 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights would strongly

influence the French Revolution’s Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the

Citizen.

● Political parties: Political factions within a republican government. The

Founding Fathers generally warned against such factions. However, parties

quickly arose in Washington’s first term. The U.S. is noted for its enduring

two-party system. There are five recognized party systems, although a Sixth Party

System (starting in the late 1960s) is sometimes also listed.

● Edmund Randolph: Founding Father. A Virginian who would become the first

Attorney General and second Secretary of State. Proposed the Virginia Plan at the

Constitutional Convention.

● Virginia Plan: A plan put forth by Edmund Randolph at the Constitutional

Convention that favored larger states. It called for representation in both

legislative houses to be based solely on population: proportional representation.

See: New Jersey Plan, Connecticut Compromise.

● William Paterson: Founding Father. A New Jersey statesman who put forth

the New Jersey Plan at the Constitutional Convention in rebuttal of the Virginia

Plan.

● New Jersey Plan: A proposal by William Paterson at the Constitutional

Convention. It called for equal representation in the legislative branch, regardless

of the number of citizens of a state, in one legislative body. This structure would

be similar to that under the Articles of Confederation.

● Roger Sherman: Founding Father from Connecticut. Proposed the Connecticut

Compromise, which provided the basis for the structure of the legislative branch.

● Connecticut Compromise: Also known as the Great Compromise of 1787, or

the Sherman Compromise. A proposal at the Constitutional Convention that

membership in one branch of the legislature be based on state population, and

the other branch (the Senate) have equal representation for all states, with each

state having one vote. See: Roger Sherman.

● House of Representatives: The lower chamber of the United States Congress.

Representation is proportional to population. Its size varied over the decades, but

was fixed at the current membership of 435 seats by the Reapportionment Act of

1929. See: Connecticut Compromise.

● Senate: The upper chamber of the United States Congress. Representation is by

state. Each state has two Senators regardless of population. Until 1913, Senators

were appointed by state legislatures. Named for the Roman Senate, upon which it

is based. See: Connecticut Compromise.

● Electoral College: A compromise at the Constitutional Convention regarding

how to elect the president. Electors cast votes as representatives of their states,

which delegates believed would protect the election process from corruption and

the influence of factions (political parties).

● Three-Fifths Compromise: Infamous compromise at the Constitutional

Convention. It held that enslaved person in the South was counted as three-fifths

of a person. In addition, the South conceded to the end of the legal importation of

slaves in 1808.

The Debate over Ratification

● Ratification: The act of giving official certification to a law or treaty. In this

period, it often refers to the process of ratifying the U.S. Constitution. Approval

from at least nine states was required to ratify new constitution, an infringement

on state sovereignty as seen by the Anti-Federalists.

● Federalists: Supported an orderly, efficient central government that could

protect their economic status; these well-organized leaders often wielded

significant political control. Members included George Washington, Benjamin

Franklin, and Alexander Hamilton. An early political party. See: Anti-Federalists,

Alien and Sedition Acts.

● Anti-Federalists: A post-revolutionary political faction that were wary of

centralization and infringements upon individual liberties, especially when it

came to taxation. Their criticism spurred the creation of the Bill of Rights, and

they would go on to contribute to the formation of the Democratic-Republicans.

● John Marshall: Founding Father. The fourth Chief Justice of the Supreme

Court (1801–1835). Cemented the concept of judicial review, making the judicial

branch coequal to the executive and legislative. A Federalist, his rulings

reinforced the supremacy of federal law. See: Marbury v. Madison.

● Bill of Rights: Umbrella term for the first 10 Amendments to the U.S.

Constitution. It explicitly lists protections for individual rights and state

sovereignty. Created to secure the support of Anti-Federalists in ratifying the U.S.

Constitution, which initially had no such guarantees.

● John Jay: Founding Father from New York. President of the Second

Continental Congress. First Chief Justice (1989–1795). An early leader in the

Federalist Party. Contributed to the Federalist Papers. See: Jay’s Treaty.

● Federalist Papers: A collection of letters written in the late 1780s urging

ratification of the Constitution. Authors include Alexander Hamilton, James

Madison, and John Jay.

Washington’s Presidency and the New Republic

● Henry Knox: Secretary of War in Washington’s cabinet. Recruited “Mad

Anthony” Wayne to reorganize U.S. military forces in the Northwest Indian War

after the fiasco of St. Clair’s Defeat.

● Judiciary Act of 1789: Established the structure of the Judiciary Branch, with

the Supreme Court consisting of one presiding chief justice and five associate

justices. It also provided for the establishment of 13 District Courts and three

Circuit Court of Appeals. See: Marbury v. Madison.

● Marbury v. Madison: 1803 ruling that stated Congress cannot pass laws that

are contrary to the Constitution, and that it is the judicial system’s job to

interpret what the Constitution permits. Overturned a clause in the Judiciary Act

of 1789 that granted the Supreme Court the power to command any subordinate

government authority to take or not take an action that is that authority’s legal

duty.

● Tariff Act of 1789: A tariff on imports. Northerners favored a higher rate to

protect their manufacturing industry from foreign encroachment, while Southern

farmers wanted a lower rate to provide for cheaper consumer goods.

● Excise taxes: Taxes paid when purchases are made on a specific good. See:

Whiskey Rebellion.

● Whiskey Rebellion: An early test of the American government’s power under

the new Constitution. Angered by the Federalist government’s excise tax imposed

on distilled liquors such as whiskey, farmers in western Pennsylvania rebelled

over being taxed by a government that seemingly did not represent them. Quickly

defeated, it proved the new central government’s power to stop rebellions and

maintain peace. See: Shays’ Rebellion.

● Bank of the United States: A national bank in which the federal government

held the major financial interest. The national treasury would keep its deposits in

the bank, keeping the funds safe and available as loanable funds. The brainchild

of Alexander Hamilton. Opposed by Thomas Jefferson on Constitutional

grounds.

● Democratic-Republicans: Also called Jeffersonian Republicans. Founded by

Anti-Federalists and agrarian interests, it was a political party that championed

states’ rights and the viewpoint of the common man. A later splinter would

become the modern Democratic Party.

● French Revolution: A period of massive upheaval in 1789–1799 in which the

French overthrew their monarchy and established a republic, which in turn gave

rise to Napoleon. One of the most important events in world history, it led to the

spread of republicanism and Enlightenment ideas. Partly triggered by the debts

incurred by France aiding American revolutionaries.

● Proclamation of Neutrality of 1793: A declaration of neutrality in the

ongoing conflicts between Britain and France resulting from the French

Revolution. Supported by Washington and Hamilton. Decried by Jefferson and

Madison.

● Jay’s Treaty: Negotiated by Chief Justice John Jay in 1794 but shaped by

Hamilton, it realized several American economic goals, including the removal of

British forts in the Northwest Territory. Britain also benefited, as the treaty gave

“most favored nation” trading status to Britain and allowed them to continue

anti-French maritime policies. Both the Democratic-Republicans and the French

were angered by the treaty, which was authorized for 10 years.

● Pinckney’s Treaty: A treaty between the U.S. and Spain, ratified in 1796. It

negotiated a settlement of boundary, right of navigation along the Mississippi

River, and right to deposit goods for transportation at the Port of New Orleans.

The Spanish made these concessions in order to avoid a possibly alliance between

its rival, Britain, and the United States.

● Farewell Address: An open letter penned by George Washington in 1797. It

warned the American people to remain neutral with regard to European affairs,

to avoid entangling alliances, and to refrain from the formation of political

parties. See: French Revolution.

Adams as Second President

● XYZ Affair: A major political scandal. Three agents of French Foreign Minister

Talleyrand—only identified as X, Y, and Z—demanded a large sum of money as a

loan and an additional bribe from an American diplomatic delegation just for the

opportunity to speak with French officials. The delegation refused to comply. Led

to the Quasi-War.

● Alien and Sedition Acts: Laws passed by Congress in 1789. The Alien Acts

increased the residency requirement for citizenship from 5 to 14 years and gave

the president power to detain and/or deport enemy aliens during wartime. The

Sedition Act criminalized the making of false statements that were critical of the

president or of Congress. Both acts were an attempt by the Federalists to silence

the Democratic-Republicans. See: Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.

● Kentucky Resolution: One of two notable responses to the Alien and Sedition

Acts. Covertly written by Thomas Jefferson, it declared that states could overrule

federal law, as the U.S. Constitution drew its powers only from what the

sovereign states delegated to it. An important precedent for later acts of

nullification. See: Virginia Resolution.

● Virginia Resolution: One of two notable responses to the Alien and Sedition

Acts. Covertly written by James Madison, it declared that states could overrule

federal law, as the U.S. Constitution drew its powers only from what the

sovereign states delegated to it. An important precedent for later acts of

nullification. See: Kentucky Resolution.