Five Things to Know about Period 2:
1. Spanish, French, Dutch, and British colonizers had different goals that impacted
the economic, political, and cultural development of their colonies and shaped
colonizers’ interactions with American Indian populations.
2. Conflict arose due to competition for resources among European rivals, and
between the Europeans and American Indians. Examples of American Indian
resistance to colonizers were the Pueblo Revolt, the Pequot War, and King
Philip’s War.
3. Early British colonies developed along the Atlantic coast with some regional
differences. New England colonies were settled by the Puritans, who lived in
small towns. The middle colonies were characterized by the export of cash crops,
less social rigidity, and more religious tolerance. The southern colonies developed
a plantation-based economy.
4. The African slave trade grew extensively throughout the eighteenth century. The
trading of slaves, cash crops, and manufactured goods between Africa, the
Americas, and Europe became known as Triangular Trade.
5. England used its colonies to obtain raw materials for its own manufacturing
purposes and wealth creation. There were, consequently, early examples of
colonial resentment and resistance. From Bacon’s Rebellion in 1676 to the Great
Awakening starting in the 1730s, the colonists begin to carve out a distinct
American identity.
Key Topics--Period 2 (1607-1754 C.E.)
Remember that the AP US History exam tests you on the depth of your knowledge, not
just your ability to recall facts. While we have provided brief definitions here, you will
need to know these terms in even more depth for the AP US History exam, including
how terms connect to broader historical themes and understandings.
European Colonization in the New World
● Samuel de Champlain: French explorer. Known as the “The Father of New
France.” Founded Quebec in 1608. Made the first accurate maps of what is
modern-day Eastern Canada.
● Louis Joliet: French-Canadian explorer. He and Jacques Marquette were the
first Europeans to explore and map the Mississippi River.
● Jacques Marquette: French Jesuit missionary. He and Louis Joliet were the
first Europeans to explore and map the Mississippi River. He founded the first
European settlement in Michigan in 1668.
● Sieur de La Salle: French explorer, also known as René-Robert Cavelier. He
surveyed the Great Lakes, Mississippi River, and Gulf of Mexico. Founded a
network of forts around the Great Lakes and in the modern-day Midwest.
● Dutch East India Company: The vehicle for the commercial ambitions of the
Netherlands in the New World, especially with regards to the fur trade. Led to the
founding of New Netherlands and New Amsterdam. See: Henry Hudson.
● Henry Hudson: English explorer. While working to find a Northwest Passage
for the Dutch East India Company, he sailed up the Hudson River, establishing
Dutch claims for what became New Amsterdam (modern-day New York).
● New Amsterdam: The Dutch capital of their New Netherland colony. Noted for
its tolerance of religious practices. It failed to attract enough settlers to compete
with the surrounding English colonies. Conquered by the English in 1664, who
renamed it New York City.
● Mestizos: A term for people of mixed Spanish and American Indian heritage.
● Catholicism: Adherence to the liturgy and practices of the Roman Catholic
Church. Catholics believe that the Bible alone is not sufficient for salvation, but
that it must be tied to certain rites and traditions. Catholics view the Pope as the
representative of Jesus on Earth. Historically, the Catholic Church was a major
landowner in both Europe and Latin America, and the Pope was often politically
more powerful than most monarchs. Contrast: Protestantism, Puritanism.
● Pueblo Revolt: A 1680 revolt against Spanish settlers in the modern-day
American Southwest. Led by a Pueblo man named Popé, it forced the Spanish to
abandon Santa Fe. A rare, decisive American Indian victory against European
colonization.
● Anglicanism: A form of Protestant Christianity that adheres to the liturgy of the
Anglican Church, also known as the Church of England. Founded in the sixteenth
century by King Henry VIII. See: Puritanism.
● Protestantism: An umbrella term for various Christian sects that broke away
from the Roman Catholic Church following the start of the Reformation in 1517.
Constitutes one of three major branches of Christianity, alongside Catholicism
and the Eastern Orthodox faith. Generally, Protestants believe that faith alone
merits salvation and good works are unnecessary. They reject the authority of the
Pope and believe the Bible is the sole authority. See: Puritanism.
● Charters: A document which Parliament used to grant exclusive rights and
privileges. Required for the legal sanction of a formal colony. Over time,
especially after the Glorious Revolution, most colonies surrendered their charters
and became royal colonies, which involved more centralized control from
England.
● Sir Humphrey Gilbert: English explorer. In the Elizabethan era, he founded
the first English colony at Newfoundland, which failed.
● Sir Walter Raleigh: One of the most important figures of the Elizabethan era.
Granted permission by Queen Elizabeth I to explore and colonize the New World
in exchange for one-fifth of all the gold and silver this venture obtained. Founded
Roanoke.
● Roanoke: Nicknamed “the Lost Colony.” First attempted English colony in the
New World. Founded in 1585 by Sir Walter Raleigh on an island off the
modern-day North Carolina coast. By 1590, its inhabitants had vanished for
reasons that still remain unknown.
Indentured Servitude
● Indentured servants: People who offered up five to seven years of their
freedom in exchange for passage to the New World. Limited rights while
servants, but considered free members of society upon release. During the
seventeenth century, nearly two-thirds of English immigrants were indentured
servants. Declined in favor of slavery, which was more profitable to planters.
● Bacon’s Rebellion: A failed 1676 rebellion in Jamestown. Led by Nathaniel
Bacon, indentured servants and slaves revolted against the Virginia Colony’s
aristocracy. It led to a strengthening of racially coded laws, such as the Virginia
Slave Codes of 1705, in order to divide impoverished white and black slaves, thus
safeguarding the planter aristocracy from future rebellions.
● Sir William Berkeley: Virginia governor during Bacon’s Rebellion (1676).
Ruled the colony based on the interests of the wealthy tobacco planters. In
addition, Berkeley advocated for good relations with the American Indians in
order to safeguard the beaver fur trade.
● Nathaniel Bacon: A young member of the House of Burgesses who capitalized
on his fellow backwoodsmen’s complaints by mobilizing them to form a citizens’
militia. Burned Jamestown during Bacon’s Rebellion. Died of dysentery in 1676.
● House of Burgesses: The first elected legislative assembly in the New World.
Established in 1619. It served as a political model for subsequent English
colonies. Initially, only landowners could vote, and only the Virginia Company
and the governor could rescind laws.
● Jamestown: Founded in Virginia in 1607, it was the first permanent English
settlement in the New World. After the statehouse was burned on four separate
occasions, the capital was moved to what became modern-day Williamsburg. See:
John Smith, Roanoke.
Slavery
● Triangular Trade: A transatlantic trade network. New World colonies exported
raw materials such as sugar and cotton to England. There, these materials were
transformed into rum and textiles. Europeans sold these manufactured goods,
including at African ports, in exchange for slaves, who would then be sold in the
colonies as farm workers, thus completing the triangle.
● Middle Passage: The leg of Triangular Trade which transported Africans across
the Atlantic Ocean to the New World. Approximately 20 percent of enslaved
Africans died before reaching the New World due to poor conditions,
dehydration, and disease.
● Stono Rebellion: A 1739 slave uprising in Stono, South Carolina. Led to the
deaths of more than four dozen colonists and as many as 200 African slaves.
Prompted South Carolina’s proprietors to create a stricter slave code.
English Conflicts with American Indians
● Virginia Company: Chartered in 1606 by King James I in order to settle the
North American eastern coastline. Established a headright system (1618) and the
House of Burgesses (1619). By 1624, a lack of profit forced the company to
concede its charter to the crown, who appointed a royal governor.
● John Smith: A pivotal leader at Jamestown. Negotiated peace between the
settlers and local American Indians. Famously stated “He that will not work shall
not eat,” forcing the Jamestown colonists to work to save their then-failing
colony. Returned to England in 1609 after being injured in a gunpowder
explosion.
● Powhatan: The name for an American Indian tribe neighboring Jamestown.
Also the common name for its chief (formally known as Wahunsenacawh) in the
1610s, who was father to Pocahontas and brother to Opechancanough.
● Pocahontas: American Indian woman who brokered peace between her tribe
and the early settlers at Jamestown, such as John Smith. Married John Rolfe in
1614.
● Opechancanough: Planned and executed a surprise attack in 1622 on
Jamestown that massacred a fourth of the total Virginia colonists in one day. The
resulting retaliation by the English settlers devastated his tribe, altering the
regional balance of power. See: Powhatan.
● Roger Williams: A Protestant theologian in during the 1630s. Believed
American Indians should be treated justly. Advocated the then-radical notion of
separation of church and state, believing government involvement in religion
amounted to forced worship. Banished from Massachusetts in 1636, he and his
followers went on to found Rhode Island.
● Pequot War: A war in New England in 1636–1638. Fought between the Pequot
tribe and the English colonists with their American Indian allies. A catastrophic
defeat for the Pequot tribe. Famous for the Mystic massacre, where over 500
Pequot were slaughtered in a blaze.
● King Philip’s War: Also known as Metacom’s War, King Philip’s War
(1675–1678) was an ongoing battle between English colonists and the American
Indian inhabitants of New England. The English victory expanded their access to
land that was previously inhabited by the natives.
The Development of English Colonial Societies in North America
● Headright system: A policy where a colonial government grants a set amount
of land to any settler who paid for their own—or someone else’s—passage to the
New World.
● John Rolfe: An influential Virginian leader. In 1611, he introduced his fellow
farmers to tobacco cultivation, which provided the economic basis for their
colony’s survival. Married Pocahontas.
● Proprietary colony: A colony in which the crown allotted land and
governmental command to one person. Maryland under Lord Baltimore is an
example of it.
● Lord Baltimore: The noble title for Cecilius Calvert. He founded Maryland in
1632 as a haven for his fellow Catholics, and advocated for peaceful coexistence
between Catholics and Protestants. Overthrown during the Glorious Revolution
by Protestant rebels.
● Puritanism: A religious code and societal organization that split off from
Anglicanism. Puritans believed that their religious and social structures were
ideal. They thought that the Church of England’s ceremonies and teachings were
too reminiscent of Catholicism and that true believers ought to read the Bible for
themselves and listen to the sermons of an educated clergy.
● Pilgrims: The first Puritans to colonize the New World. Settled at Plymouth.
Members of a minority group of Puritans known as separatists.
● Separatists: A minority Puritan faction that wished to abandon the Church of
England and form their own independent church cleansed of any lingering
Catholicism. After a failed 1607–1608 effort in the Netherlands, that failed due to
fears over the local culture corrupting their children, they boarded the Mayflower
and founded Plymouth colony.
● Plymouth: A colony in modern-day Cape Cod, founded by the Pilgrims in 1620.
By 1691, it was merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony to form the crown
colony of the Province of Massachusetts Bay.
● Mayflower Compact: The first written form of government in the modern-day
United States. Drafted by the Pilgrims, it was an agreement to establish a secular
body that would administer the leadership of the Plymouth colony.
● Squanto: An American Indian who learned English after having been captured
and transported to England. Later returned to the New World. He showed the
Pilgrims how to plant corn and where to fish, enabling them to survive early on.
● Massachusetts Bay Company: Founded in 1629 by a collective of London
financiers, who advocated for the Puritan cause and wanted to profit from
American Indian trade.
● Body of Liberties: Issued by the Massachusetts General Court in 1641, it
delineated the liberties and duties of Massachusetts settlers. It also allowed for
free speech, assembly, and due process; it also authorized the death penalty for
the worship of false gods, blasphemy, and witchcraft.
● Great Migration of the 1630s: A period where many Puritan families moved
across the Atlantic. By 1642, approximately 20,000 Puritans had immigrated to
Massachusetts.
● Anne Hutchinson: A Puritan colonist in Massachusetts. Tried and convicted of
heresy in the 1630s. She asserted that local ministers were erroneous in believing
that good deeds and church attendance saved one’s soul. She believed that faith
alone merited salvation.
● Thomas Hooker: Puritan leader. Founded a settlement at Hartford,
Connecticut (1636) after dissenting from the Massachusetts authorities. See: the
Fundamental Orders of Connecticut.
● Fundamental Orders of Connecticut: The first “constitution” in colonial
America, fully established the Hartford government in 1639. While it modeled
itself after the government of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the document—in a
key innovation—called for the power of government to be derived from the
governed, who did not need to be church members to vote.
● Charter of Liberties and Privileges: Drafted in 1683 by a New York
assembly, following the colony’s takeover by the English. It mandated elections,
and reinforced traditional English liberties such as trial by jury, security of
property, and religious tolerance for Protestant churches.
● Fundamental Constitution of Carolina: Issued by the proprietors of
Carolina in 1669, who aimed to create a feudal society composed of nobles, serfs,
and slaves. Four-fifths of the land was owned by the planters. Colonial leaders
established an elected assembly and a headright system to attract immigrants,
who were allowed to own the remaining land. It allowed for religious tolerance,
both for Christian dissenters and Jewish people.
● William Penn: Founded Pennsylvania in 1683. A Quaker, Penn believed in
equality between people. He owned all the colony’s land and sold it to settlers at
low costs, instead of developing a headright system. The religious tolerance,
excellent climate, and low cost of land appealed to immigrants from across
Western Europe. See: Quaker
● Quakers: Formally known as the “Society of Friends.” A Protestant church that
advocated that everyone was equal, including women, Africans, and American
Indians. See: William Penn.
● James Oglethorpe: A wealthy reformer who founded Georgia in 1733 as a
haven for those who had been imprisoned in England as debtors. He initially
banned slavery and alcohol from the colony, which led to many disputes among
settlers. In 1751, however, the colony was surrendered to the crown, which
repealed both bans.
Characteristics of English Colonial Societies
● Mercantilism: The theory that a government should control economic pursuits
to further a nation’s national power, especially in the acquisition of silver and
gold. Prominent in Europe from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries.
Replaced by free trade. See: laissez-faire.
● Navigation Acts: Laws passed in 1651 as measure to supersede Dutch control of
international trade. Colonial commodities such as tobacco and sugar had to be
exported to England in English ships and sold in English ports before they could
be re-exported to other nations’ markets. Spurred colonial resentment in the
long-term. See: mercantilism.
● Glorious Revolution: The 1688 overthrow of the Catholic King James II by the
English Parliament. He was replaced by his Protestant daughter Mary II and her
Dutch husband, William III of Orange. Led to both celebration and unrest
throughout the American colonies.
● Toleration Act of 1689: An English law that called for the free worship of most
Protestants, not only Puritans. Forced on Massachusetts in 1691 after it was made
a royal colony, revoking its earlier Puritan-centric charter.
● Great Awakening: A Protestant religious movement that took place across the
Thirteen Colonies during the 1730s and 1740s. It indirectly helped spur religious
tolerance and led to the founding of many universities. See: Second Great
Awakening.
● Jonathan Edwards: A preacher credited for sparking the (First) Great
Awakening. His sermons encouraged parishioners to repent of their sins and
obey God’s word in order to earn mercy. He delivered his most famous sermon,
“Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” in 1741.
● George Whitefield: A traveling New Light preacher during the Great
Awakening. Known for his sermons on the “fire and brimstone” eternity that all
sinners would face if they did not publicly confess their sins. Undermined the
power and prestige of Old Light ministers by proclaiming that ordinary people
could understand Christian doctrine without the clergy’s guidance.
Six Things to Know about Period 3:
1. After the British and the colonists won the French and Indian War, England faced
enormous debt. The resulting taxation of the colonists led to resentment and
tension with England. The Boston Massacre and Boston Tea Party were two
notable examples of this increasingly troubled relationship.
2. Colonial leaders called for resistance to imperial rule and demanded that their
rights be respected. New experiments with democracy and republican forms of
government came about with the Continental Congress, the ideas of Benjamin
Franklin and Thomas Paine, and, ultimately, the Declaration of Independence.
3. After the American Revolution, the Articles of Confederation united the newly
formed states. However, the federal government remained very weak, which was
made evident by Shay’s Rebellion. Debates on how to govern the new country
culminated in the calling of the Constitutional Convention.
4. Throughout the presidencies of George Washington and John Adams, the
Federalists and Anti-Federalists debated on how the young nation should manage
its economy, foreign affairs, and internal relations with the new states. The
Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, favored a stronger central government.
The Anti-Federalists, led by Thomas Jefferson, favored giving more power to the
individual states.
5. The development of a distinct American foreign policy emerged. George
Washington warned against becoming entangled in foreign affairs, such as the
French Revolution, and preferred diplomatic initiatives, like Jay’s Treaty and
Pinckney’s Treaty, to deal with continued European presence in America.
6. Migration trends and competition over boundaries, resources, and trade fueled
ethnic tensions and sparked nativist sentiments. The United States’ relationship
with American Indian groups continued to evolve, often centering on conflict
regarding native lands.
Key Topics--Period 3 (1754-1800 C.E.)
Remember that the AP US History exam tests you on the depth of your knowledge, not
just your ability to recall facts. While we have provided brief definitions here, you will
need to know these terms in even more depth for the AP US History exam, including
how terms connect to broader historical themes and understandings.
The French and Indian War
● French and Indian War: 1754–1763. Name for the North American theater of
the Seven Years’ War. Featured Britain and France, and their colonial and native
allies, fighting for control of North America east of the Mississippi. While the
British won, they incurred massive debts in the process. This led to trouble down
the road for them. See: Treaty of Paris (1763).
● George Washington: First President. Served 1789–1797. A land surveyor from
Virginia, he led colonial militia as an officer in the French and Indian War. Led
the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War at battles such as
Valley Forge and Yorktown. Later presided over the Continental Congress.
Among many other acts, he established the informal two-term limit for
presidents by declining to run for reelection in 1796. See: Farewell Address.
● Benjamin Franklin: Founding Father. Invented bifocals, the Franklin stove,
the lightning rod, and the swivel chair. An early campaigner for American unity,
he served as the first U.S. Ambassador to France (1776–1785). Signed both the
Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. Died 1790 at age 84. See:
Albany Plan of Union.
● Albany Plan of Union: A proposal by the Albany Congress, under the guidance
of Benjamin Franklin, during the French and Indian War. It called for a
confederation of colonies to defend against attack by European and native foes.
Rejected by the colonial assemblies due to concern over the central consolidation
of power, and by the British government because they felt it allowed for too much
colonial independence.
● William Pitt: Also known as William Pitt the Elder. A Whig statesman who
shifted British efforts in the French and Indian War from colonial skirmishes to
the capturing of Canada, with key victories in Louisbourg (1758), Quebec (1759),
and Montreal (1760). This effectively removed France’s presence from North
America.
● Treaty of Paris (1763): Treaty which capped off the French and Indian War.
The British took control of French Canada and Spanish Florida, effectively
removing France’s presence from North America.
Post-War Conflicts with American Indians
● Pontiac’s Rebellion: An 18-month conflict with the American Indians of the
Ohio Valley. Led by Chief Pontiac, leader of the Ottawa people, natives attacked
British colonial settlements from the Great Lakes to Virginia. Resulted in the
Proclamation of 1763.
● Proclamation of 1763: In reaction to Pontiac’s Rebellion, King George III
barred American colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains. The
British saw this as a quick and easy way to make peace while securing the fur
trade. Colonists, however, were incensed by the crown’s interference in their
ability to settle land they had won in the French and Indian War. The colonists
often ignored it. An important contributing factor to the American Revolution.
Effects of the French and Indian War
● Currency Act: A law passed by Parliament in 1764. It limited the use of colonial
paper money, in order to protect British merchants from depreciation. While not
a major contributing factor to the American Revolution, it did signify growing
British interest in regulating the colonies.
● Sugar Act: A 1764 law which raised the previous amount demanded on
sweeteners (molasses and sugar). Part of British attempts to pay off debt from the
French and Indian War.
● Quartering Act: A 1765 act of Parliament that required colonial citizens to
provide room and board for British soldiers stationed in America. Wildly
unpopular. This practice was later banned by the Third Amendment to the
Constitution.
● Stamp Act: A pivotal 1765 law. It required that all paper in the colonies, from
death and marriage certificates to newspapers, have a stamp affixed signifying
that the required tax had been paid. See: Stamp Act Congress.
● George Grenville: British Prime Minister who passed the Currency, Sugar,
Quartering, and Stamp Acts. He felt the colonists were being asked to pay only
their fair share of the debt from the French and Indian War.
● Patrick Henry: Founding Father. Young Virginian lawyer and Patriot. In
reaction to the Stamp Act, he accused the British government of usurping the
rights guaranteed to colonists as Englishmen. He encouraged his fellow leaders to
insist that Virginians be taxed only by Virginians, not by some distant royal
authority. Later an Anti-Federalist.
● James Otis: A Patriot from Massachusetts. Coined the phrase “Taxation
without representation is tyranny,” which is popularly abbreviated as “no
taxation without representation.”
● Stamp Act Congress: A meeting of representatives of nine of the Thirteen
Colonies. They sent word to England that only colonial legislatures had the
authority to tax the colonists. Repealed in 1766 and replaced with the Declaratory
Act.
● Sons and Daughters of Liberty: A group of Patriot activists who intimidated
tax collectors by attacking their homes, burning them in effigy, and even tarring
and feathering them. They also ransacked warehouses that held stamps and
burned them to the ground.
● Samuel Adams: Founding Father. Led the Sons and Daughters of Liberty. Also
penned Massachusetts Circular Letter in 1768, which demanded that the
Townshend Act be repealed.
● Declaratory Act: Replaced the Stamp Act. A 1766 law that maintained the right
of the crown to tax the colonies, as Parliament’s authority was identical in both
Britain and North America.
● Townshend Acts: A revenue plan passed by Parliament in 1767. It imposed
harsher taxes on the purveyors of imported goods such as glass, paper, and tea.
In addition, a special board of customs officials was appointed to enforce writs of
assistance. Repealed 1770.
● Writs of assistance: Authorized under the Townshend Acts, writs allowed
customs officials to search colonial homes, businesses, and warehouses for
smuggled goods without a warrant from a judge. Led to the Massachusetts
Circular Letter.
● John Dickinson: Founding Father from Pennsylvania. He wrote a series of
essays called “Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania,” which rekindled interest
in the issue of taxation without representation during the Townshend Acts. He
oversaw the drafting of the Articles of Confederation.
● Massachusetts Circular Letter: Penned by Samuel Adams, it was a response
to the Townshend Acts and the resulting writs of assistance. It demanded the
Townshend Act be immediately repealed. Widely circulated, it rejuvenated
boycotts of British goods.
● Boston Massacre: A landmark incident on March 5, 1770 that helped alienate
the American people from Parliament and King George III. Angered by the
Quartering Act, a crowd of Bostonians harassed the British troops guarding a
local customs house. The guards fired upon the crowd, killing five and wounding
six protesters. John Adams would defend the guards tried for this incident and
secure their acquittal.
● Committees of Correspondence: A means by which Patriots could circulate
letters of protest against British policies. It functioned as a kind of shadow
opposition government in the runup to the American Revolutionary War. Vital in
organizing the Continental Congress.
● Gaspee Affair: The Gaspee was a British warship commissioned to capture
vessels carrying smuggled goods before they reached the colonies. The Gaspee
ran aground on the shores of Rhode Island. The Sons of Liberty set fire to the
boat, and event celebrated throughout coastal colonial towns as a victory for the
tax-burdened consumer.
● Tea Act: A 1773 law that actually lowered the price of tea, but colonists were now
wary of any British attempt to collect revenue. They refused to purchase the tea.
See: Boston Tea Party.
● Boston Tea Party: In protest of the Tea Act, Bostonians dressed as American
Indians boarded British merchant ship and dumped their tea into Boston Harbor.
Resulted in closure of the Harbor, the colonial charter of Massachusetts being
revoked, and the Quartering Act.
● Quebec Act: A 1774 act of Parliament that which allowed the former French
region to expand its borders, taking away potential lands from colonists in the
Ohio River Valley. Even more offensive to the largely Protestant colonists, it also
allowed Quebec citizens to practice Catholicism freely. See: Intolerable Acts.
● Intolerable Acts: A colonial term for a number of punitive laws passed by the
British Parliament in response to the Boston Tea Party. See: Quebec Act, Tea Act,
Thomas Gage.
The American Revolution
● Declaration and Resolves: An attempt by the First Continental Congress to
reconcile the Thirteen Colonies with the British Empire. Addressed to King
George III, it urged him to correct the wrongs incurred by the colonists while
simultaneously acknowledging the authority of Parliament to regulate colonial
trade and commerce.
● First Continental Congress: Organized in 1774 as a response to the
Intolerable Acts, colonial leaders managed to urge their colonies to expand
military reserves and organize boycotts of British goods in the meantime. See:
Declaration and Resolves.
● Thomas Gage: British general. Led the British response to Pontiac’s Rebellion.
Served as military governor of Massachusetts (1774–1775) to enforce the
Intolerable Acts. Led British forces at Lexington and Concord, as well as Bunker
Hill. Replaced in 1775 by William Howe.
● American Revolution: An anti-colonial revolt (1765–1773) where the Thirteen
Colonies threw off the yoke of the British Empire and established the United
States of America. Distinct from but related to the American Revolutionary War
(1775–1783). Its beginning is traced to the aftermath of the French and Indian
War, when Britain sought to resolve the debt that war had created.
● Declaration of the Causes and Necessities of Taking Up Arms: A
document published by the Continental Congress on July 6, 1775. It justified the
raising of a professional colonial military force and urged King George III a
second time to consider colonial grievances.
● King George III: King of Great Britain and Ireland. He reigned from 1760 to
1820. Dismissed attempts by the Second Continental Congress to peacefully
resolve their conflict with Parliament on the grounds that the colonies had no
authority to form such a body.
● Olive Branch Petition: A July 1775 statement by the Continental Congress that
reasserted colonial loyalty to King George III and asked him to intervene with
Parliament on the colonies’ behalf. The king refused to recognize the legitimacy of
the Congress to make any such request.
● Thomas Paine: An English-born political activist in the American and French
Revolutions. Author of Common Sense.
● Common Sense: A pamphlet that used Enlightenment philosophy to argue that
it would be contrary to common sense to allow British injustices to continue.
Written and published in January 1776 by Thomas Paine.
● Enlightenment: An eighteenth-century philosophical and intellectual
movement which prized reason. It challenged traditional notions of reflexive
obedience to the Church and to monarchy, and laid the groundwork for the
scientific revolution and Industrial Revolution. See: Benjamin Franklin, Common
Sense, Declaration of Independence, French Revolution.
● Second Continental Congress: An assembly of delegates from across the
Thirteen colonies (1775–1781). It passed the Declaration of Independence and the
Articles of Confederation.
● Richard Henry Lee: A delegate at the First and Second Continental Congress.
On June 7, 1776, he famously made an official motion calling for the colonies to
declare independence.
● Thomas Jefferson: Founding Father. Authored the Declaration of the
Independence. First Secretary of State (1779–1781). Second Vice President
(1797–1801). Helped found the Democratic-Republican Party in 1794.
Co-authored the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.
● Declaration of Independence: Announced the colonies’ official break from
England, making the United States a country in its own right. It contained a
preamble that heavily reflected Enlightenment philosophy regarding natural
rights, as well as 27 grievances and charges of wrongdoing directed at the crown
and Parliament. See: Gettysburg Address.
● Patriots: Activists for independence from the British Empire. Mostly young New
Englanders and Virginians. Often did not have significant status in society. Many
volunteered their time to the Continental Army, typically without pay.
● Tories: A British political party which controlled Parliament throughout the
American Revolutionary War. Led by Lord North. Lost a vote of no confidence in
March 1782 following the British defeat at the Siege of Yorktown. Power was
transferred to the Whigs.
● Benedict Arnold: A general in the American Revolutionary War. He
participated in the Capture of Fort Ticonderoga and the Battle of Saratoga. Most
infamously remembered for defection to the British, which caused his name to
become a byword for treason.
● Horatio Gates: American general in the Revolutionary War. He shares credit
with Benedict Arnold for winning the most important battle of the war: the Battle
of Saratoga.
● Battle of Saratoga: An umbrella term for two battles fought 18 days apart in
Autumn 1777. British forces under General Burgoyne attacked U.S. forces led by
Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold. The British were eventually forced to retreat.
News of the American victory led to the introduction of French aid, reshaping the
entire war.
● Whigs: A British political party which took control of Parliament from the
Tories, and negotiated peace terms with the colonists. Distinct from the later
American political party of the same name.
● Treaty of Paris (1783): Treaty which officially ended the American
Revolutionary War. The U.S. agreed to repay debts to British merchants and
promised not to punish Loyalists who chose to remain in the United States.
Formal recognition of the United States as an independent country. Set the
geographic boundaries between the British Empire and the United States.
American Indians During and After the Revolution
● Miami Confederacy: A collection of American Indian tribes in the eighteenth
century. In the Northwest Indian War (1785–1795), a military alliance led by
Little Turtle and Blue Jacket attempted to resist the expansion of the U.S. into
the Old Northwest territory.
● Little Turtle: War chief of the Miami Confederacy during the Northwest Indian
War. Along with Blue Jacket, he informed Americans that the Confederacy
considered the Ohio River the northwestern boundary of the newfound United
States. At St. Clair’s Defeat, his troops killed over a thousand U.S. officers and
soldiers in the largest American Indian victory in history. See: Battle of Fallen
Timbers.
● Battle of Fallen Timbers: The final battle of the Northwest Indian War,
fought against the Miami Confederacy. Led to the Treaty of Greenville. The forces
under “Mad Anthony” Wayne, recruited after St. Clair’s Defeat, would form the
core of what became the United States Army.
● Treaty of Greenville: A 1795 treaty in which 12 American Indian tribes ceded
vast areas of the Old Northwest to the federal government, including most of
what is now Indiana and Ohio. In return, the tribes of the Miami Confederacy
were given an initial payment of $20,000 and an annual payment of $9,000.
Ended the Northwest Indian War.
The Impact of the Enlightenment
● John Locke: A British philosopher whose theory of natural rights challenged
the absolute and divine rule of kings and queens by asserting that all men should
be ruled by natural laws, and that sovereignty was derived from the will of those
governed. Locke went on to assert that the governed have a responsibility to rebel
against a government that fails to protect the natural rights of life, liberty, and
property. See: Enlightenment.
● John Adams: Second President. Served 1791–1801. First Vice President
(1789–1797). Lobbied for declaring independence at the Continental Congress.
Signed the Alien and Sedition Acts, and built up the armed forces during the
Quasi-War. Died on July 4, 1826, the same day as his friend and political rival
Thomas Jefferson. See: Boston Massacre, midnight judges.
● Separation of powers: An Enlightenment concept advocated by the French
philosopher Montesquieu in his seminal 1748 work The Spirit of the Laws. It is
the idea that a government’s power should be divided into multiple branches that
balance and check each other.
● Direct democracy: A form of democracy in which the people directly vote on
matters of policy, rather than electing delegates to decide for them as in
representative democracy.
The Articles of Confederation
● Articles of Confederation: The first constitution of the U.S., drafted alongside
the Declaration of Independence but by a separate committee. It strongly favored
states’ rights and forbid Congress from levying taxes. Ratified in 1781. Replaced
by the Constitution following Shays’ Rebellion. See: Northwest Ordinance of
1787.
● Supermajority: A majority greater than one half, typically two-thirds.
● Land Ordinance of 1785: Established the basis for the Public Land Survey
System whereby settlers could purchase land in the undeveloped West. It
required new townships to set aside a parcel of land reserved for public
education. At this time, Congress did not have the power to raise revenue via
taxes, so this Ordinance created a local mechanism for funding public education.
See: Department of Education.
● Northwest Ordinance of 1785: A rare triumph under the Articles of
Confederation, it established guidelines for attaining statehood: territories with
at least 60,000 people could apply for statehood. If accepted by Congress, the
new state would have equal status with other states. It banned slavery north of
the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi, thereby guaranteeing future free states
in the Midwest.
● Daniel Shays: Massachusetts farmer and Revolutionary War veteran. He led a
short-lived populist uprising that demanded tax and debt relief. Pardoned in
1788. See: Shays’ Rebellion.
● Shays’ Rebellion: An insurrection in Massachusetts (1786–1787) over
oppressive taxes and debt collectors. Led by Daniel Shays. It helped spur the
Constitutional Convention.
The Constitutional Convention
● James Madison: Founding Father from Virginia. Known as the “Father of the
Constitution” for his role in drafting it and the Bill of Rights. Contributed to the
Federalist Papers. Co-founded the Democratic-Republican Party.
● Alexander Hamilton: Founding Father and co-author of the Federalist Papers.
As the first Secretary of the Treasury, he set out to repair the nation’s credit and
overall financial health. Favored a strong executive, strong military, and political
centralization. See: Whiskey Rebellion.
● Constitutional Convention: A meeting that took place in Philadelphia from
May 25 to September 17, 1787. Ostensibly called to amend the Articles of
Confederation, the majority of the delegates arrived with the intention to simply
draft a new constitution, one which is still in use to the modern-day. See:
Connecticut Compromise, New Jersey Plan, Virginia Plan.
● Robert Morris: Founding Father and noted financier of the American
Revolution. Signed the Declaration, the Articles of Confederation, and the
Constitution. Declined to become the first Treasury Secretary, instead
recommending Alexander Hamilton.
● Charles Pinckney: A South Carolinian notable for his role at the Constitutional
Convention, where he helped introduce the Fugitive Slave Clause and the “no
religious test” clause for public officers. Later negotiated Pinckney’s Treaty with
Spain.
● George Mason: Founding Father from Virginia. One of three delegates at the
Constitutional Convention who refused to sign the final document. He objected to
its lack of a Bill of Rights, and wanted an immediate end to the slave trade (while
supporting slavery itself). His 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights would strongly
influence the French Revolution’s Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the
Citizen.
● Political parties: Political factions within a republican government. The
Founding Fathers generally warned against such factions. However, parties
quickly arose in Washington’s first term. The U.S. is noted for its enduring
two-party system. There are five recognized party systems, although a Sixth Party
System (starting in the late 1960s) is sometimes also listed.
● Edmund Randolph: Founding Father. A Virginian who would become the first
Attorney General and second Secretary of State. Proposed the Virginia Plan at the
Constitutional Convention.
● Virginia Plan: A plan put forth by Edmund Randolph at the Constitutional
Convention that favored larger states. It called for representation in both
legislative houses to be based solely on population: proportional representation.
See: New Jersey Plan, Connecticut Compromise.
● William Paterson: Founding Father. A New Jersey statesman who put forth
the New Jersey Plan at the Constitutional Convention in rebuttal of the Virginia
Plan.
● New Jersey Plan: A proposal by William Paterson at the Constitutional
Convention. It called for equal representation in the legislative branch, regardless
of the number of citizens of a state, in one legislative body. This structure would
be similar to that under the Articles of Confederation.
● Roger Sherman: Founding Father from Connecticut. Proposed the Connecticut
Compromise, which provided the basis for the structure of the legislative branch.
● Connecticut Compromise: Also known as the Great Compromise of 1787, or
the Sherman Compromise. A proposal at the Constitutional Convention that
membership in one branch of the legislature be based on state population, and
the other branch (the Senate) have equal representation for all states, with each
state having one vote. See: Roger Sherman.
● House of Representatives: The lower chamber of the United States Congress.
Representation is proportional to population. Its size varied over the decades, but
was fixed at the current membership of 435 seats by the Reapportionment Act of
1929. See: Connecticut Compromise.
● Senate: The upper chamber of the United States Congress. Representation is by
state. Each state has two Senators regardless of population. Until 1913, Senators
were appointed by state legislatures. Named for the Roman Senate, upon which it
is based. See: Connecticut Compromise.
● Electoral College: A compromise at the Constitutional Convention regarding
how to elect the president. Electors cast votes as representatives of their states,
which delegates believed would protect the election process from corruption and
the influence of factions (political parties).
● Three-Fifths Compromise: Infamous compromise at the Constitutional
Convention. It held that enslaved person in the South was counted as three-fifths
of a person. In addition, the South conceded to the end of the legal importation of
slaves in 1808.
The Debate over Ratification
● Ratification: The act of giving official certification to a law or treaty. In this
period, it often refers to the process of ratifying the U.S. Constitution. Approval
from at least nine states was required to ratify new constitution, an infringement
on state sovereignty as seen by the Anti-Federalists.
● Federalists: Supported an orderly, efficient central government that could
protect their economic status; these well-organized leaders often wielded
significant political control. Members included George Washington, Benjamin
Franklin, and Alexander Hamilton. An early political party. See: Anti-Federalists,
Alien and Sedition Acts.
● Anti-Federalists: A post-revolutionary political faction that were wary of
centralization and infringements upon individual liberties, especially when it
came to taxation. Their criticism spurred the creation of the Bill of Rights, and
they would go on to contribute to the formation of the Democratic-Republicans.
● John Marshall: Founding Father. The fourth Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court (1801–1835). Cemented the concept of judicial review, making the judicial
branch coequal to the executive and legislative. A Federalist, his rulings
reinforced the supremacy of federal law. See: Marbury v. Madison.
● Bill of Rights: Umbrella term for the first 10 Amendments to the U.S.
Constitution. It explicitly lists protections for individual rights and state
sovereignty. Created to secure the support of Anti-Federalists in ratifying the U.S.
Constitution, which initially had no such guarantees.
● John Jay: Founding Father from New York. President of the Second
Continental Congress. First Chief Justice (1989–1795). An early leader in the
Federalist Party. Contributed to the Federalist Papers. See: Jay’s Treaty.
● Federalist Papers: A collection of letters written in the late 1780s urging
ratification of the Constitution. Authors include Alexander Hamilton, James
Madison, and John Jay.
Washington’s Presidency and the New Republic
● Henry Knox: Secretary of War in Washington’s cabinet. Recruited “Mad
Anthony” Wayne to reorganize U.S. military forces in the Northwest Indian War
after the fiasco of St. Clair’s Defeat.
● Judiciary Act of 1789: Established the structure of the Judiciary Branch, with
the Supreme Court consisting of one presiding chief justice and five associate
justices. It also provided for the establishment of 13 District Courts and three
Circuit Court of Appeals. See: Marbury v. Madison.
● Marbury v. Madison: 1803 ruling that stated Congress cannot pass laws that
are contrary to the Constitution, and that it is the judicial system’s job to
interpret what the Constitution permits. Overturned a clause in the Judiciary Act
of 1789 that granted the Supreme Court the power to command any subordinate
government authority to take or not take an action that is that authority’s legal
duty.
● Tariff Act of 1789: A tariff on imports. Northerners favored a higher rate to
protect their manufacturing industry from foreign encroachment, while Southern
farmers wanted a lower rate to provide for cheaper consumer goods.
● Excise taxes: Taxes paid when purchases are made on a specific good. See:
Whiskey Rebellion.
● Whiskey Rebellion: An early test of the American government’s power under
the new Constitution. Angered by the Federalist government’s excise tax imposed
on distilled liquors such as whiskey, farmers in western Pennsylvania rebelled
over being taxed by a government that seemingly did not represent them. Quickly
defeated, it proved the new central government’s power to stop rebellions and
maintain peace. See: Shays’ Rebellion.
● Bank of the United States: A national bank in which the federal government
held the major financial interest. The national treasury would keep its deposits in
the bank, keeping the funds safe and available as loanable funds. The brainchild
of Alexander Hamilton. Opposed by Thomas Jefferson on Constitutional
grounds.
● Democratic-Republicans: Also called Jeffersonian Republicans. Founded by
Anti-Federalists and agrarian interests, it was a political party that championed
states’ rights and the viewpoint of the common man. A later splinter would
become the modern Democratic Party.
● French Revolution: A period of massive upheaval in 1789–1799 in which the
French overthrew their monarchy and established a republic, which in turn gave
rise to Napoleon. One of the most important events in world history, it led to the
spread of republicanism and Enlightenment ideas. Partly triggered by the debts
incurred by France aiding American revolutionaries.
● Proclamation of Neutrality of 1793: A declaration of neutrality in the
ongoing conflicts between Britain and France resulting from the French
Revolution. Supported by Washington and Hamilton. Decried by Jefferson and
Madison.
● Jay’s Treaty: Negotiated by Chief Justice John Jay in 1794 but shaped by
Hamilton, it realized several American economic goals, including the removal of
British forts in the Northwest Territory. Britain also benefited, as the treaty gave
“most favored nation” trading status to Britain and allowed them to continue
anti-French maritime policies. Both the Democratic-Republicans and the French
were angered by the treaty, which was authorized for 10 years.
● Pinckney’s Treaty: A treaty between the U.S. and Spain, ratified in 1796. It
negotiated a settlement of boundary, right of navigation along the Mississippi
River, and right to deposit goods for transportation at the Port of New Orleans.
The Spanish made these concessions in order to avoid a possibly alliance between
its rival, Britain, and the United States.
● Farewell Address: An open letter penned by George Washington in 1797. It
warned the American people to remain neutral with regard to European affairs,
to avoid entangling alliances, and to refrain from the formation of political
parties. See: French Revolution.
Adams as Second President
● XYZ Affair: A major political scandal. Three agents of French Foreign Minister
Talleyrand—only identified as X, Y, and Z—demanded a large sum of money as a
loan and an additional bribe from an American diplomatic delegation just for the
opportunity to speak with French officials. The delegation refused to comply. Led
to the Quasi-War.
● Alien and Sedition Acts: Laws passed by Congress in 1789. The Alien Acts
increased the residency requirement for citizenship from 5 to 14 years and gave
the president power to detain and/or deport enemy aliens during wartime. The
Sedition Act criminalized the making of false statements that were critical of the
president or of Congress. Both acts were an attempt by the Federalists to silence
the Democratic-Republicans. See: Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.
● Kentucky Resolution: One of two notable responses to the Alien and Sedition
Acts. Covertly written by Thomas Jefferson, it declared that states could overrule
federal law, as the U.S. Constitution drew its powers only from what the
sovereign states delegated to it. An important precedent for later acts of
nullification. See: Virginia Resolution.
● Virginia Resolution: One of two notable responses to the Alien and Sedition
Acts. Covertly written by James Madison, it declared that states could overrule
federal law, as the U.S. Constitution drew its powers only from what the
sovereign states delegated to it. An important precedent for later acts of
nullification. See: Kentucky Resolution.