chater 26 world history notes

Causes of World War I

World War I began due to several interconnected factors that created a tense and volatile environment in Europe by 1914. These causes include Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism. Together, they fostered suspicion, competition, and hostility among the European nations, setting the stage for a large-scale conflict.

Militarism and Alliances in Europe

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, European countries significantly expanded their militaries to protect their overseas colonies and national interests. This buildup of military strength led to an atmosphere of mistrust and fear, as nations became nervous about potential threats from their neighbors.

To further secure their interests, European powers formed strategic alliances:

• Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy

• Triple Entente: Great Britain, France, and Russia

These alliances were designed to provide mutual defense but also increased the risk of a regional conflict escalating into a full-scale war, as countries were committed to defending their allies.

Nationalism and Imperial Rivalries

A strong sense of nationalism—devotion to one's country, culture, or ethnic group—permeated Europe. This fervor led to the creation of new nations and intensified ethnic tensions, especially in regions like the Balkan Peninsula.

In particular, many ethnic groups sought independence from the Ottoman Empire, which had ruled them for centuries. Serbia, a newly independent state, aimed to expand its borders to include Serbs living across the Balkans. Austria-Hungary, which controlled Bosnia where many Serbs lived, sought to prevent this expansion, heightening tensions.

Imperialism further fueled rivalries as European nations competed to build vast empires, seeking to be the largest and most powerful. This competition for colonies and global influence created conflicts and resentment among imperial powers.

Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

The immediate spark for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist and member of the Black Hand, on June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo. This event set off a chain reaction among the alliances.

Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for supporting the assassin and declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. Russia, allied with Serbia, mobilized troops to defend Serbia, prompting Germany—an ally of Austria-Hungary—to declare war on Russia. Germany also declared war on France and invaded Belgium to attack France, which drew Great Britain into the conflict due to Belgium's neutrality.

Outbreak and Early Battles of WWI

Following the declarations of war:

• Germany launched a quick invasion of Belgium and France, leading to the Battle of the Frontiers in August 1914, which resulted in German victory.

• Russia attacked Germany from the east, notably at the Battle of Tannenberg, where German forces crushed the Russian invasion.

• The initial battles led to a stalemate, with both sides digging trenches along the Western Front, marking the beginning of trench warfare.

Trench Warfare and Stalemate

The Western Front became characterized by extensive trench systems stretching hundreds of miles across France and Belgium. Life in the trenches was horrific:

• Unsanitary, muddy, and crowded conditions

• Lice, rats, and disease

• Dead bodies often remained unburied

• Soldiers faced constant threat of enemy fire and "no man's land" attacks

Despite numerous battles, territorial gains were minimal, leading to a prolonged deadlock. The trenches became a symbol of the war's brutality and futility.

New Weapons and Warfare Technology

WWI introduced devastating new weapons that changed combat:

• Poison gas: Chocked, burned, blinded victims; unpredictable winds could blow gas back onto the attacker. Both sides developed gas masks.

• Machine guns: Enabled rapid firing, causing high casualties.

• High explosives shells: Enormous destructive power, devastating trenches and enemy formations.

• Tanks: Engineered by the British, tanks could cross difficult terrain and played a significant role by the war’s end.

• Aircraft: Initially used for reconnaissance, later armed with machine guns for air combat, marking the beginning of air warfare.

Despite technological advances, the deadlock persisted due to trench warfare.

Total War and Home Front Impact

WWI was a total war, requiring nations to mobilize all societal resources:

• Governments controlled economies, censored media, and propagated propaganda to maintain morale and demonize the enemy.

• Censorship suppressed news of casualties to prevent demoralization.

• Propaganda portrayed the enemy as brutal and war as a noble cause.

Women entered the workforce in large numbers, working in factories, serving as nurses, and supporting war efforts—significantly shifting societal roles and perceptions of women.

Major Battles on the Western Front

• Battle of Verdun (Feb-Dec 1916): A fierce, prolonged siege where the French defended a strategic fortress, resulting in about 40,000 French and German deaths. It symbolized the war's brutal attrition.

• Battle of the Somme (June-Dec 1916): Initiated by the British to relieve Verdun, it resulted in over 60,000 British casualties on the first day alone, with no decisive breakthrough.

• Third Battle of Ypres (1917): Continued stalemate with high casualties and little territorial change, exemplifying the war's futility.

War around the World

WWI expanded beyond Europe:

• Gallipoli Campaign (1915): The Allies attempted to seize control of the Dardanelles to supply Russia but failed, suffering heavy losses.

• Armenian Massacre: During the Ottoman Empire's involvement, Armenians were forcibly removed and killed, an event recognized by many as genocide.

• Colonial Contributions: Japan, Britain, and France fought in Asia and Africa, capturing colonies and mobilizing colonial troops, many of whom sought independence but were disappointed.

Russian Participation and Revolution

Russia entered WWI in 1914, unprepared and poorly equipped, suffering massive casualties. Czar Nicholas II took command in 1915, but military failures and economic hardship worsened.

In 1917, widespread unrest led to the February Revolution:

• Nicholas II abdicated, ending centuries of Romanov rule.

• A provisional government was established under Alexander Kerensky, but it continued the war, causing discontent.

The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power in the October Revolution of 1917, establishing a communist government. Russia withdrew from WWI, signing a peace treaty with Germany, losing territory.

Civil War and the Rise of the Soviet Union

Post-revolution, Russia plunged into civil war:

• The Red Army (Bolsheviks) fought the White Army (anti-Bolsheviks, monarchists, foreign powers).

• The Reds won by 1920, consolidating power.

• Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, allowing limited capitalism.

• In 1922, the Soviet Union was formed, with Lenin as leader. After his death in 1924, a power struggle ensued.

The United States and WWI

Initially neutral, the US entered WWI in April 1917 due to:

• German unrestricted submarine warfare sinking American ships like the Lusitania.

• The Zimmermann Note: Germany proposed Mexico attack the US to distract and weaken the Allies, provoking American entry.

US troops arrived in France by mid-1918, bolstering the Allies. Germany launched a last-ditch offensive but was ultimately pushed back. The war ended on November 11, 1918, with Germany seeking an armistice.

The Treaty of Versailles and Postwar Settlement

The peace treaty imposed harsh penalties on Germany:

• Blame: Germany accepted full responsibility.

• Reparations: Massive payments to war victims.

• Military Restrictions: Limited army size and banned conscription.

• Territorial Losses: Return of Alsace-Lorraine to France, creation of Poland, and loss of colonies.

• Humiliation: Germany's economy was devastated, fostering resentment.

The treaty also established the League of Nations, aimed at maintaining peace, but the US refused to join.

Other treaties dismantled Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, creating new nations and mandates in the Middle East, often under European control.

Human, Economic, and Political Costs

WWI was one of the deadliest conflicts:

• Approximately 9 million soldiers and 7 million civilians died.

• The influenza pandemic of 1918 added to the death toll, causing around 50 million deaths worldwide.

• Economically, Europe’s farmland and industries were devastated, leading to a decline in European dominance.

• Politically, empires like Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire collapsed, leading to revolutionary upheaval and new political systems.

Unrest in Colonies

Colonial troops fought alongside Europeans, expecting independence in return. However, they faced continued control and colonization, fueling unrest and demands for independence that would influence future global conflicts.

This comprehensive guide synthesizes the