Scientific Process:

1. Question (Basic 

2. Hypothesis

3. Data Interpretation

4. Interpretation

aTheory vs Hypothesis

Hypotheses support a theory

Random selection

Representative selection

Hypothesis and Variables:

Hypothesis - A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Dependent Variable depends on the independent variable. (the independent variable is changed)

Theory 

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Operational Definition 

giving specific explanations to certain words in a research study 

(ex: in a study about how drinking coffee increases a person’s happiness, define happiness, how much coffee, what coffee etc.)

Validity and Reliability:

Validity 

When the measurement is accurate, the results are correct 

(ex: you are 50 kg, you measure your weight on an electrical scale an you get 50kg)

Reliability

When the measurement is consistent over multiple tests. The research can be replicated, any other scientists would be able to follow your procedure and get similar results.

ex: regardless of your weight, you measure your weight on an electric scale five times and you get 70 kg every time. 70kg may not be your weight, but the results are consistent)

Replication

Repeating  the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Sampling:

Participants

Individuals on which the research will be conducted

Sampling

The process and method by which participants are selected

(ex: you’re finding a favorite pet among people at your school. The sample, suppose, a group of people chosen at random from your school)

Population

The group of people from which the sample will be selected

(ex: you’re finding a favorite pet among people at your school. The population is the people at your school)

Representative

The goal in selecting a sample is that it represents a larger population

[see types of sampling]

Types of Sampling:

Random Selection

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

[note: the larger the group of people, the more likely the sample represents the population)

(ex: CC Sampling scenario. You have a list of names of people in your school. You give each name a number from 1-150, let there be 150 people in your school. Then you use a random number generator to select people.)

[side note]

We would not want to select (CC Sampling scenario) all 150 people, as it takes time and money, and not too small of a group so that the results are affected. 

Stratified Sampling

Ratios and things that reflect the real life

(ex: let there be, of the 150 people in your school, 40 Europeans, 40 Asians, 20 African Americans, 30 latinos and 20 caucasians, and you want to find out how different racial groups might respond differently. Then, in your sample, you would want the ratio of people of different races to eb similar to that of your entire school)

[note: here you would divide the names of potential participants into each of the racial groups, and then randomly select a sample of desired size from each  racial group]

Methods:

Experimental Method

Laboratory Experiments

Conducted in a lab, highly controlled environment (pros: variables can be controlled)

Field Experiment

Going out into the world to conduct experiments (pros: more realistic)

Confounding Variables

A variable in a study, not the independent variable, that affects the dependent variable 

(ex: in a test on how drinking coffee makes you run faster, a confounding variable would be the person’s stamina)

(less popular among psychologists but exists)

Naturalistic Observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Benefits/Downsides

This provides a slice of life that can be very revealing (reflects real life)

However, only descriptive, not very explanatory 

Could be used for personality in psychology (ie. show how an individual acts on a day-to-day basis) 

[CC Hawthorne Effect]

Case Study

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in hope of revealing universal principles

Benefits/Downsides

Cannot used to establish cause-and-effect relationships

As usually, the event has already happened, can’t go back in time 

Susceptible to inaccurate reporting and the subject’s biased views: as there is a limited amount of subjects 

Based on a person's perspective rather than a actual data (does give information, but not accurate) 

Survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Surveys benefits/downsides:

Social desirability bias: survey respondents often report that they are healthier happier and less prejudiced than they would be expected based on the results of other types of research (pressured to say what is desired, not what is true due to social pressure)

Good for feedback:

Not best for sampling entire populations: 

Proceduring

The control  group is also the experimental group

(ex: first make them watch something frustrating and then doing the task, and then watching something not frustrating and then doing the task)

Benefits/Downsides

Order effects (2nd test may be affected by previous test, not just because of the independent variable)

Within the Experiment:

Control Group

 in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment 

[CC Avoiding Incorrect Data]

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Ethical guidelines

a set of principles designed to help professionals conduct business honestly and with integrity. Key principles in psychology include informed consent, confidentiality, protection from harm, and debriefing

Avoiding Incorrect Data:

Placebo Effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effects on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

(ex: the control group in the coffee effect on running speed experiment would drink decaf coffee, which is a placebo)

Double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies 

(To Avoid participants and/or staff from f-ing with the data because of personal beliefs, etc.)

Single Blind Procedure

The experimenter knows which groups are control/experimental. The participants do not.

Experimenter Bias

Where the experimenter unconsciously treats members of the experimental and control groups differently to increase chance of confirming hypothesis

Response/Participant Bias

Participants consciously/subconsciously behave in certain ways because they know which group they are in

(ex: social desirability effects how groups respond)

The Hawthorne effect 

When a participant's behavior changes as a result of being observed, rather than as a result of an intervention

Correlation 

Correlation is not Causation

Correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Scatterplot

Pairs of values used to graph correlation

Line of best fit / regression line

The line that minimizes the distance of all the points form the line. Slope is positive means positive correlation. Slope is downwards means negative correlations

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1, 0 means no correlation)

[CC Confounding Variable]

0-1=positive correlation    closer to 1=stronger  0.05=really weak   0.8=really strong

 -0.1=weak negative correlation  -0.9=strong negative correlation 

Correlation on Exam

On exam:

What you need to do: draw flow of graph (line of best fit) 

Descriptive Statistics

Data:

Mean - average

Media -  middle score

Mode - most frequently occurring score

Range - difference between highest and lowest in a distribution

Standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores can vary around the mean score

Scew 

(world not perfect )

Variance

a measure of how much value in a data set differ from the mean

Frequency Distribution

describes the number of observations for each possible value of a variable

Histograms

Frequency distributions turned into frequency polygons aka histogram

Normal curve

asymmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes

Positive and Negative- skewed

Mean equals mean - normal distribution

Mean shifts right - skew left

Mean shifts left - skew right

Statistical significance

 a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

P value

the probability level which forms the basis for deciding if results are statistically significant.

Inferentials Statistics: 

Z score 

The distance of a score from the mean in units of standard deviation

(bob scored 145 on a test with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation. Z score is (145-100)/15=+3)

[cc Correlations ] 

Ethical Guidelines (bc we’re good people)

Milgram experiment:

Researchers hid some facts from the participants 

They needed to say no three times to withdraw 

Informed consent: participants agree after being told what to expect 

Researchers must tell participants what is going on before starting the study 

S

S

Confidentiality:

If you do need to send private things public, it will be on the agreement form

and must be clearly marked as confidential to ensure proper handling.