Hindsight Bias: Believing an outcome was predictable after it has occurred.

Critical Thinking: Evaluating information and arguments logically and systematically.

Theory: A broad explanation based on evidence.

Hypothesis: A specific, testable prediction.

Operational Definition: A clear, measurable definition of a variable.

Replication: Repeating a study to confirm results.

Case Study: An in-depth examination of a single individual or group.

Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in its natural setting without interference.

Survey: A method to collect data from a large group through questions.

Sampling Bias: When some members of a population are less likely to be included in the sample.

Population: The entire group of interest in a study.

Random Sample: A sample where every member of the population has an equal chance of selection.

Correlation: A measure of how two variables are related.

Correlation Coefficient: A number from -1 to +1 indicating the strength and direction of a correlation.

Scatterplot: A graph showing the relationship between two variables using dots.

Illusory Correlation: Seeing a relationship between two variables when none exists.

Experiment: A study where variables are manipulated to observe effects.

Experimental Group: The group that receives the treatment in an experiment.

Control Group: The group that does not receive the treatment, used for comparison.

Random Assignment: Assigning participants to groups by chance to ensure equality.

Double-Blind Procedure: Both participants and researchers are unaware of group assignments.

Placebo: A non-active substance used to control for the effects of expectations.

Independent Variable: The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.

Confounding Variable: An extraneous variable that could affect the outcome.

Dependent Variable: The variable that is measured in an experiment.

Validity: How accurately a study measures what it intends to.

Descriptive Statistics: Methods to summarize and describe data.

Mode: The most frequent value in a data set.

Mean: The average of a data set.

Median: The middle value in a data set.

Skewed Distribution: A data set that is not symmetrically distributed.

Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values.

Standard Deviation: A measure of data spread around the mean.

Normal Curve: A bell-shaped curve showing a normal distribution.

Inferential Statistics: Techniques for making generalizations from sample data.

Statistical Significance: Whether an observed effect is likely due to chance.

Culture: Shared values and practices of a group.

Informed Consent: Informing participants about a study before they agree to take part.

Debriefing: Explaining the true nature of the study to participants after it is completed.