The Age of Ideologies and World Wars (Lecture Notes)

Chapter 20–27 Overview Notes

These notes summarize the content provided, organizing major ideas, events, definitions, and implications from Chapters 20–27. Each chapter is broken into its key sections with bullet-point detail, examples, dates, and conceptual connections. All dates and numbers are presented in LaTeX math formatting where applicable.

Chapter 20: The Age of Ideologies

1. The Search for Order in Europe, 1815–1830

• Aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars

  • Napoleon’s defeat in 1815 left Europe politically unstable with fears of revolution and renewed conflict.

  • The Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) sought to restore monarchies, redraw borders, and prevent any one nation from dominating Europe.

• Key Goals of the Congress

  • Balance of Power — prevent dominance of a single nation (e.g., Britain balancing France, Austria balancing Prussia).

  • Legitimacy — restore hereditary monarchs who were deposed during the Napoleonic era.

  • Collective Security — great powers pledged to suppress revolutions.

• The Concert of Europe

  • Alliance system (Austria, Britain, Russia, Prussia, later France) meeting periodically to resolve disputes and maintain stability.

  • Used military intervention to crush uprisings (Spain 1820, Naples 1821).

• Metternich’s Conservatism

  • Klemens von Metternich promoted traditional monarchy, church authority, and aristocracy as the foundation of social order.

  • He strongly opposed liberalism, nationalism, and democracy.

• Suppression of Liberal and Nationalist Movements

  • Secret police, censorship, and banning political clubs were common.

  • Example: Carlsbad Decrees (German Confederation, 1819) suppressed university reforms and press freedom.

2. Citizenship and Sovereignty, 1830–1848

• Shifting Ideas of Political Participation

  • Liberalism promoted constitutional government, property-based voting rights, and individual freedoms.

  • Nationalism demanded unity of people with a shared language, culture, and history.

• Revolutions of 1830

  • France: July Revolution overthrew King Charles X; Louis-Philippe became the “Citizen King.”

  • Belgium: Won independence from the Netherlands.

  • Poland: Uprising crushed by Russia.

• 1848 Revolutions

  • Swept across Europe (France, German states, Italy, Austria-Hungary).

  • Common goals: universal male suffrage, national unification, constitutional rights.

  • Mostly failed, but planted seeds for later reforms.

• Expansion of “Citizenship”

  • Growing push for voting rights, freedom of the press, and broader political participation beyond elites.

  • Working-class and women’s demands began influencing political debates.

3. Revolutions, Migration, and Political Refugees

• Revolutionary Failures → Migration

  • Many revolutionaries fled after suppression, especially in 1848.

  • Political refugees carried radical ideas abroad, influencing politics in host countries.

• “Forty-Eighters” in the United States

  • German revolutionaries settled in the Midwest; became active in journalism, education, and anti-slavery causes.

• Impact on Host Nations

  • Spread of liberal, socialist, and nationalist thought.

  • Cultural enrichment through skills, language, and ideas.

4. The Politics of Slavery after 1815

• Global Abolition Movement

  • Britain banned the slave trade in 1807; slavery abolished in British colonies in 1833.

  • Abolitionists like William Wilberforce (Britain) and Frederick Douglass (US) pushed for a global end to slavery.

• Persistence of Slavery

  • Continued in US South, Brazil, and Cuba due to plantation profitability.

  • Atlantic slave trade diminished but illegal trafficking persisted.

• International Diplomacy

  • Britain pressured other nations to sign treaties banning the trade; Royal Navy patrolled to intercept slave ships.

• Slavery as Political Flashpoint

  • In the US, debates over slavery intensified toward the Civil War.

  • In Europe, slavery’s morality tied to broader liberal and humanitarian ideals.

5. Taking Sides: New Ideologies in Politics

• Conservatism — Defended monarchy, aristocracy, and established religion; feared chaos from revolutionary change.

• Liberalism — Advocated civil liberties, parliamentary government, and economic freedom (free trade).

• Nationalism — Sought self-determination for cultural-linguistic groups.

• Socialism — Early forms (Fourier, Owen) emphasized cooperative communities; later Marx and Engels pushed revolutionary class struggle.

• Anarchism — Advocated abolition of all government; Mikhail Bakunin argued for voluntary cooperation.

• Feminism — Pioneers like Mary Wollstonecraft and early suffragists argued for women’s rights in education, work, and politics.

6. Cultural Revolt: Romanticism

• Reaction Against Enlightenment Rationalism — Valued emotion, nature, imagination, and individualism.

• Art & Literature — Delacroix celebrated dramatic historical scenes and nature; Hugo and Brontë sisters explored emotion and individuality.

• Music — Beethoven, Chopin, Liszt emphasized emotional power.

• Nationalist Romanticism — Folk tales, music, and history built national pride (e.g., Grimm Brothers).

7. Conclusion

• Post-1815 Europe featured a tug-of-war between conservative monarchies and revolutionary ideas.

• Ideologies like liberalism, nationalism, and socialism challenged traditional authority.

• Romanticism expressed cultural resistance to industrial and political conformity.

8. (Implicit Topic) The Age of Ideologies as a Turning Point

• This era introduced modern political ideologies that still shape politics today.

• Revolutions failed but ideas persisted, reemerging stronger in later decades.

• Set the stage for national unifications and imperial rivalries in the late 19th century.

Chapter 21: Revolutions and Nation Building, 1848–1871

1. The Revolutions of 1848

• Background Causes

  • Economic hardship: food shortages (Irish Potato Famine) and unemployment from industrial downturns.

  • Political frustration: middle classes demanded constitutional rights; workers demanded higher wages and conditions; nationalists sought self-determination.

  • Inspiration: previous revolutions (1789, 1830) and rising socialist/Marxist thought.

• Key Uprisings

  • France: February Revolution toppled Louis-Philippe; Second Republic established with universal male suffrage; June Days exposed class divisions; Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte elected president in December.

  • German States: Frankfurt Assembly attempted German unification under a liberal constitution; failed when the Prussian king refused the crown.

  • Austria-Hungary: Vienna and Hungary revolts demanded constitutional government and autonomy; crushed by Austrian and Russian forces.

  • Italy: Revolts across states sought unification and independence from Austria; suppressed by 1849.

• Reasons for Failure

  • Divisions between liberals and radicals; divisions among nationalists of different ethnic groups.

  • Conservative military power remained strong.

  • Monarchs exploited divisions to regain control.

• Legacy

  • Immediate failure but long-term influence: many demands (constitutionalism, nationalism) re-emerged in later decades.

2. Building the Nation-State

• Nationalism as a Unifying Force

  • Shift from revolutionary ideal to conservative tool; leaders used nationalism to strengthen monarchies and unite people under centralized states.

• Italian Unification (Risorgimento)

  • Leaders: Count Camillo di Cavour (Piedmont-Sardinia PM) used diplomacy and alliances; Giuseppe Garibaldi led military campaigns with the “Red Shirts.”

  • 1861: Kingdom of Italy proclaimed under King Victor Emmanuel II.

  • 1870: Rome annexed, completing unification.

• German Unification

  • Driven by Otto von Bismarck (Prussia’s PM) using “blood and iron” (war and industry).

  • Wars: Danish War (1864) — with Austria to seize Schleswig and Holstein; Austro-Prussian War (1866) — Prussia defeated Austria; created the North German Confederation.

  • Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) — victory over France rallied southern German states to join unification.

  • 1871: German Empire proclaimed in Versailles; Kaiser Wilhelm I crowned emperor.

3. Nation and State Building in Russia and the United States

• Russia

  • Tsar Alexander II implemented reforms after defeat in the Crimean War (1853–1856).

  • Emancipation of Serfs (1861) gave peasants limited land rights but left many in poverty.

  • Industrialization began slowly; revolutionary movements emerged, including populists and early Marxists.

• United States

  • Sectional tensions over slavery escalated into the Civil War (1861–1865).

  • Union victory preserved national unity and abolished slavery (13th Amendment).

  • Reconstruction (1865–1877) aimed to rebuild the South and integrate freed African Americans into political life, though racial inequality persisted.

4. “Eastern Questions”: International Relations and the Decline of Ottoman Power

• The Eastern Question — how to deal with a weakening Ottoman Empire without upsetting the balance of power.

• Crimean War (1853–1856) — Russia sought influence; Britain and France allied with the Ottomans to block expansion. First modern war with railways, telegraphs, and war correspondents; Russia’s defeat highlighted modernization needs.

• Balkan Nationalism — Serbs, Greeks, Bulgarians, and Romanians sought independence; movements sparked international crises as great powers took sides.

5. Conclusion

• The mid-19th century was a turning point: nationalism became a tool for conservative state-building as well as revolutionary change.

• Italy and Germany emerged as unified nations, altering the balance of power.

• Russia and the United States underwent significant reforms and conflicts to define their futures.

• The decline of the Ottoman Empire began reshaping geopolitics, especially in the Balkans.

Chapter 22: Imperialism and Colonialism, 1870–1914

1. Imperialism

• Definition & Era

  • The “New Imperialism” (roughly 1870–1914) was faster, more global, and tied to industrial capitalism.

• Timeframe

  • 1870–1914, pre-World War I.

• Motives

  • Economic: raw materials (rubber, oil, cotton, tin) and markets for goods.

  • Strategic: ports, naval bases, trade routes (e.g., Suez Canal).

  • National Prestige: colonies as symbols of greatness.

  • Social Darwinism: misapplication of Darwin to justify domination of “weaker” peoples.

  • Missionary Zeal: spread Christianity, Western education, and medicine; often tied to cultural imperialism.

• Major Powers Involved

  • Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Japan, the United States, and Russia.

  • By 1914, most of Africa, large parts of Asia, and the Pacific were under imperial control.

2. Imperialism in South Asia

• British Raj

  • Britain’s direct control over India began after the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857, ending East India Company rule and placing India under the Crown.

• Economic Impact

  • India became a major supplier of cotton, tea, jute, and opium; served as a market for British textiles.

• Infrastructure

  • Railways, telegraphs, and ports expanded; benefited British control more than local populations.

• Cultural Impact

  • English became the language of administration; Western education cultivated an Indian middle class.

• Indian Nationalism

  • Emerged among Western-educated Indians seeking greater self-government.

• Indian National Congress

  • Formed in 1885; initially reformist, later pushed for independence.

3. Imperialism in China

• Decline of Qing Dynasty

  • Rebellions (Taiping 1850–1864) and defeats in the Opium Wars (1839–1842, 1856–1860) weakened Qing.

  • Treaty ports opened; Hong Kong ceded to Britain.

• Spheres of Influence

  • Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and Japan carved out zones for exclusive trade and investment rights; China retained sovereignty but was economically dominated.

• Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901)

  • Anti-foreign, anti-Christian insurrection; crushed by an international coalition.

• Self-Strengthening Movement

  • Attempted modernization in military and industry but hindered by conservative officials.

4. The French Empire and the Civilizing Mission

• French Colonial Expansion

  • North Africa: Algeria (1830s), Tunisia (1881), Morocco (1912).

  • West/Central Africa: Senegal, Ivory Coast, Congo Basin.

  • Southeast Asia: French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia).

• Mission Civilisatrice (Civilizing Mission)

  • France’s ideology to spread language, culture, and values; education, infrastructure, and legal systems imposed on colonies, often at local expense.

• Critics viewed it as cultural imperialism disguised as benevolence.

5. The “Scramble for Africa” and the Congo

• Berlin Conference (1884–1885) — European powers set rules for claiming African territory to avoid war among themselves.

• No African representatives present.

• By 1914, nearly all Africa was under European control except Ethiopia and Liberia.

• Congo Free State

  • Personal domain of King Leopold II of Belgium (1885–1908); rubber exploitation caused millions of deaths; international outrage forced Belgium to take direct control.

6. Imperial Culture

• Popular Support for Empire

  • Exhibitions, literature, school curricula glorified expansion; adventure novels romance imperial life (e.g., Kipling, King Solomon’s Mines).

• Racial Ideologies

  • Pseudoscientific racism justified colonial rule; “White Man’s Burden” framed as civilizing mission.

• Cultural Exchange

  • Colonies influenced European tastes in art, cuisine, and fashion (e.g., tea in Britain; African motifs).

7. Crises of Empire at the Turn of the Twentieth Century

• Colonial Resistance

  • Armed uprisings: Mahdist War in Sudan (1881–1899), Ashanti resistance, Boer resistance in South Africa.

• Intellectual and nationalist movements challenged imperial rule (e.g., Indian and Egyptian nationalists).

• International Rivalries

  • Imperial expansion heightened tensions among powers, contributing to World War I.

8. The Ecological Consequences of European Migrations

• Mass European Migration (1815–1914): >50 million Europeans moved, many to the Americas, Australia, and parts of Africa.

• Environmental Changes

  • Introduction of European farming techniques, crops, and livestock altered ecosystems; deforestation and soil depletion in colonies.

• Cultural Demographic Shifts

  • Settlers displaced Indigenous peoples, changing cultural landscapes.

9. Conclusion

• From 1870 to 1914 imperialism peaked, reshaping global politics, economies, and cultures.

• European dominance spanned continents but also sowed seeds of resistance and decolonization in the 20th century.

• Imperial rivalries created new alliances and tensions, contributing directly to the outbreak of World War I.

Chapter 23: Modern Industry and Mass Politics, 1870–1914

1. The Second Industrial Revolution

• Definition & Timeframe

  • Took place roughly 1870–1914; built upon the first Industrial Revolution with new industries, technologies, and global economic integration.

• Key Innovations

  • Steel production: Bessemer process and open-hearth method—made steel cheaper and stronger; essential for railways, bridges, ships, skyscrapers.

  • Electricity: Enabled electric lighting, streetcars, subways, factories running longer hours.

  • Chemicals: Fertilizers, synthetic dyes, explosives, pharmaceuticals transformed agriculture, manufacturing, warfare.

  • Internal combustion engine: Powered automobiles and later airplanes.

  • Telecommunications: Telegraph expansion; telephone invention by Bell (1876); wireless radio by Marconi.

• Economic Shifts

  • Mass production and assembly lines increased efficiency (e.g., Ford’s Model T, 1908).

  • Rise of large corporations, trusts, and monopolies.

• Global Impact

  • Industrial powers dominated world trade and finance, influencing political power balances.

2. The Rise of Mass Politics

• Expansion of Suffrage

  • Working-class men gained voting rights in many European nations by the early 20th century; women’s suffrage movements gained momentum.

  • Britain: Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884 expanded the electorate; Representation of the People Act (1918) later included women.

• Political Parties & Organizations

  • Liberal and Conservative parties in Britain; Republicans and Monarchists in France; Social Democrats in Germany.

  • Socialist parties grew as voices for labor rights and welfare reform.

• Mass Political Participation

  • Higher literacy and cheap newspapers built informed electorates.

  • Campaigns centered on rallies, posters, and speeches.

3. The Socialist Challenge

• Roots of Socialism

  • Reaction to industrial capitalism’s inequalities; sought wealth redistribution, public ownership, and labor protections.

• Marxism

  • Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels — class struggle and proletarian revolution; Second International (1889) linked socialist parties across Europe.

• Revisionist Socialism

  • Eduard Bernstein and others argued for gradual reform through democratic means rather than violent revolution; tension with revolutionary Marxists.

• Labor Movements

  • Trade unions grew in size and influence; targeted wages, hours, and conditions.

4. Women and Politics

• Suffrage Movements

  • Britain: Emmeline Pankhurst and the WSPU used militant tactics; protests, hunger strikes.

  • United States: Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and later Alice Paul campaigned for voting rights.

• Workforce Participation

  • Industrialization opened women’s employment in textiles, clerical work, and teaching; wages remained unequal.

  • Middle-class women entered professions (nursing, social work).

• Legal and Social Reform

  • Campaigns for property rights, access to higher education, and divorce reform.

• Feminists linked political equality to broader social justice issues.

5. Jews in European Nation-States

• Emancipation and Opportunity

  • Many countries granted Jews equal rights in the 19th century; Jews participated in politics, education, business.

• Persistence of Anti-Semitism

  • Xenophobia and nationalist movements fueled prejudice; the Dreyfus Affair (France, 1894–1906) exposed deep-seated anti-Semitism.

• Zionism

  • Theodor Herzl founded Zionism; advocated for a Jewish homeland in Palestine as a response to persistent discrimination.

6. The New Imperialism and Mass Politics

• Connection Between Empire and Politics

  • Imperial expansion used to rally public support and distract from domestic issues.

• Public Engagement

  • Imperial exhibitions, popular literature, and media glorified colonialism.

• Debates

  • Some political movements opposed imperialism, citing moral and economic costs.

7. The Nation, Race, and Social Darwinism

• Social Darwinism

  • Herbert Spencer applied “survival of the fittest” to societies; used to justify imperialism, racial segregation, and eugenics.

• Nationalist Racism

  • National identity tied to racial theories; fueled xenophobia and discrimination; influenced colonial policy and immigration restrictions.

8. The Diplomacy of the “New Alliance”

• Shifting Alliances in Europe

  • Germany under Bismarck maintained peace via a network of alliances: Triple Alliance (1882: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia.

  • After Bismarck’s dismissal (1890), German policy shifted, drawing France and Russia closer.

• Naval Arms Race

  • Britain and Germany competed to build powerful fleets, elevating tensions.

• Imperial Rivalries

  • Conflicts over Africa and Asia increased mistrust among powers.

9. Conclusion

• By 1914, industrial power, mass politics, and imperialism were tightly interwoven.

• Political participation expanded dramatically, but inequalities and rivalries created tension.

• Ideologies such as socialism, feminism, and Zionism reflected reformist hopes, while racial theories and imperial competition pushed Europe toward global conflict.

Chapter 24: War and Revolution, 1914–1920

1. The Road to War, 1914

• Underlying Causes

  • Nationalism — fierce competition, ethnic nationalism within multi-ethnic empires (e.g., Austria-Hungary).

  • Imperial Rivalries — scramble for colonies heightened tensions among Britain, France, Germany.

  • Militarism — arms race, especially British and German navies; glorification of military power.

  • Alliance System — Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia) meant that a conflict between two powers could become continental.

• Immediate Cause

  • June 28, 1914: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip.

  • Austria-Hungary’s ultimatum to Serbia; partial refusal led to war declaration.

  • Alliance commitments pulled major powers into conflict.

• Schlieffen Plan

  • Germany’s plan to defeat France quickly through Belgium before turning to Russia; invasion of neutral Belgium brought Britain into war.

2. The Experience of War

• Trench Warfare

  • Western Front stalemate; massive casualties for minimal gains; trenches, barbed wire, machine guns.

• New Military Technology

  • Poison gas, tanks, airplanes, submarines, long-range artillery; high death tolls and shell shock.

• Total War

  • Civilian economies mobilized; rationing, war bonds, conscription; governments increased control over industries, transportation, and communication.

• Global Scope

  • Fighting spread to Africa, the Middle East, and Asia; colonies contributed soldiers/resources; naval blockades and unrestricted submarine warfare affected global trade.

3. The Russian Revolution

• February Revolution (March 1917, Gregorian calendar)

  • Caused by food shortages, military defeats, and dissatisfaction with Tsar Nicholas II; mass protests in Petrograd; soldiers mutinied.

  • Tsar abdicated; Provisional Government formed.

• October Revolution (November 1917)

  • Led by the Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin; promised “Peace, Land, and Bread.”

  • Overthrew the Provisional Government; established Soviet rule.

• Civil War (1918–1921)

  • Reds (Bolsheviks) vs Whites (anti-Bolshevik forces); foreign intervention by Allies.

  • Bolsheviks won; established the USSR in 1922.

4. The United States Enters the War

• Initial Neutrality

  • President Woodrow Wilson kept the US out until 1917 despite sympathy for the Allies.

• Reasons for Entry

  • Unrestricted German submarine warfare (Lusitania sinking 1915; resumed in 1917).

  • Zimmermann Telegram: Germany proposed alliance with Mexico against the US.

  • Economic ties and loans to Allies.

• Impact

  • US entry boosted Allied morale and provided manpower/resources; American Expeditionary Force (AEF) helped turn the tide in 1918.

5. The End of the War

• German Offensive and Collapse

  • Spring Offensive of 1918 failed; Allied counterattacks pushed Germans back.

  • Domestic unrest, strikes, and mutinies weakened the Central Powers.

• Armistice

  • November 11, 1918: ceasefire signed; peace negotiations followed.

• Casualties and Destruction

  • Massive human cost; widespread destruction across Europe.

6. The Peace Settlement

• Paris Peace Conference (1919)

  • Dominated by the Big Four: Wilson (US), David Lloyd George (Britain), Georges Clemenceau (France), Vittorio Orlando (Italy).

• Treaty of Versailles (1919)

  • Germany accepted responsibility for the war (war guilt clause), paid reparations, lost colonies/territory, military restrictions.

  • League of Nations established to prevent future conflicts.

• Other Treaties

  • Separate treaties redrew Eastern European borders and dissolved Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires.

• Criticism

  • Many Germans viewed the treaty as a humiliating diktat; US Senate refused to ratify, weakening the League of Nations.

7. The Wider Impact of War

• Economic Consequences

  • European economies burdened by debt and inflation; the US emerged as a major creditor.

  • Disrupted global trade and agriculture.

• Political Changes

  • Fall of monarchies in Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire.

  • Rise of revolutionary movements; communism and fascism gained momentum.

• Social Effects

  • Women entered the workforce in large numbers; suffrage expanded post-war.

  • Trauma and disillusionment expressed in literature/art (Lost Generation, Dadaism).

8. The Colonial Impact of War

• Colonial Troops

  • Millions from Africa, Asia, and the Pacific served in European armies.

• Promises and Betrayals

  • Allies hinted at independence/reforms for colonies but largely expanded imperial control after the war.

• Middle East

  • Former Ottoman territories divided into British/French mandates, fueling resentment.

9. Conclusion

• World War I reshaped political, social, and economic orders.

• The League of Nations failed to prevent future conflict; unresolved grievances and new geopolitics set the stage for World War II.

Chapter 25: The New Era, 1920–1929

1. The Search for Security

• Post–World War I Instability

  • Treaty of Versailles left unresolved tensions; Germany resented reparations and losses.

  • Eastern Europe’s new states faced border disputes and ethnic divisions (1945 not relevant here; focus: early 1920s).

• League of Nations

  • Aimed to provide collective security and dispute mediation but weakened by the absence of the US, limited enforcement power, and reluctance of major powers to act decisively.

  • Achieved some successes in minor disputes but failed to address major crises.

• Diplomatic Efforts

  • Washington Naval Conference (1921–1922): limited battleship construction among major powers.

  • Locarno Treaties (1925): Germany recognized western borders; seen as a step toward reconciliation with France and Belgium.

  • Kellogg–Briand Pact (1928): Renounced war as a policy tool; lacked enforcement.

2. Economic Recovery and Prosperity

• Postwar Recession to Growth

  • Early 1920s saw recessions, but mid-decade saw industrial growth, especially in the US and parts of Western Europe.

  • Mass production techniques reduced costs and boosted consumer goods availability.

• American Economic Dominance

  • US became the world’s leading economic power; provided loans/investments abroad (e.g., Dawes Plan, 1924).

• Consumer Culture

  • Automobiles, radios, household appliances; advertising and installment credit fueled demand.

  • Urban lifestyles shaped cultural values.

3. The Soviet Union under Lenin and Stalin

• Russian Civil War Aftermath

  • Bolsheviks won; Soviet economy devastated; War Communism (state control of industry; grain requisitioning) caused hardship.

• New Economic Policy (NEP)

  • Introduced in 1921: allowed some private enterprise and small-scale capitalism while state retained major industries.

  • Helped revive agriculture and trade.

• Power Struggle After Lenin’s Death (1924)

  • Key rivals: Joseph Stalin, Leon Trotsky, and others.

  • Stalin outmaneuvered opponents, consolidating power by the late 1920s.

• Stalin’s Policies Emerging

  • Began laying groundwork for collectivization of agriculture and rapid industrialization.

4. Weimar Germany

• Challenges

  • Hyperinflation crisis of 1923 wiped out savings; political extremism grew.

  • Coup attempts from both left and right (e.g., Hitler’s Beer Hall Putsch, 1923).

  • Reparations burdened economy.

• Recovery

  • Stresemann stabilized currency, negotiated the Dawes Plan, improved foreign relations (Locarno Treaties).

  • Cultural flourishing in Berlin (theater, cinema, cabaret, modernist architecture).

5. Fascism in Italy

• Origins

  • Postwar discontent over settlements (Mutilated Victory), economic troubles, social unrest.

• Rise to Power

  • Benito Mussolini founded the Fascist Party in 1919; 1922: March on Rome; King Victor Emmanuel III invited Mussolini to form a government.

  • Gradually dismantled democratic institutions; established a one-party state.

• Fascist Ideology

  • Glorified the state over individual rights; promoted militarism, discipline, and unity under a strong leader.

6. The United States in the 1920s

• Economic Boom — “Roaring Twenties”

  • Industrial output and consumer spending surged.

• Social Changes

  • Women gained the vote (19th Amendment, 1920); “flapper” culture reflected changing gender roles.

  • Harlem Renaissance celebrated African American culture and arts.

• Prohibition (1920–1933)

  • 18th Amendment banned alcohol; led to speakeasies, organized crime, and law evasion.

• Immigration Restrictions

  • Quota laws (1921, 1924) limited Southern/Eastern European immigration; Asians largely excluded.

7. Japan and China between the Wars

• Japan

  • Economic growth, militarism, nationalism; expanded influence in Asia, especially Manchuria.

  • Participated in international diplomacy while pursuing territorial expansion.

• China

  • After Qing fall: fragmentation with warlords; May Fourth Movement (1919) promoted nationalism and modernization; rise of CCP (1921) and KMT under Sun Yat-sen, later Chiang Kai-shek.

8. Colonialism and Nationalism

• Colonial Resistance

  • Anti-colonial movements rose in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East; Gandhi’s nonviolent campaigns in India.

• Middle East

  • Former Ottoman lands under British/French mandates; Arab nationalism emerges; Palestine conflict grows with Jewish migration under the British mandate.

9. Conclusion

• The 1920s combined optimism and tension: economic growth and cultural vibrancy coexisted with rising authoritarian regimes (Italy, USSR) and fragile democratic orders.

• International efforts for peace persisted alongside growing nationalism and unresolved WWI grievances that would contribute to 1930s crises.

Chapter 26: The Great Depression and World War II, 1929–1945

1. The Great Depression

• Causes

  • US stock market crash (October 1929) triggered a global downturn; deeper issues included overproduction, unequal wealth distribution, and international debt.

  • Protectionism: Tariffs like the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act (1930) reduced global trade.

• Global Impact

  • Unemployment soared (US 25 h percentile peak by 1933); many nations faced severe job loss.

  • Economic nationalism increased; international financial systems collapsed; debt crises spread.

• Social Consequences

  • Homelessness, Dust Bowl migration in the US; rise of social unrest and new political movements.

2. The New Deal

• Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Response (US, 1933–1939)

  • Relief: aid to unemployed and poor (e.g., Civilian Conservation Corps, Works Progress Administration).

  • Recovery: public works, infrastructure, and agricultural subsidies.

  • Reform: long-term changes like Social Security Act, and banking/financial regulation (FDIC, SEC).

• Impact

  • Restored confidence and reduced suffering; did not fully end the Depression but expanded the federal government’s role in the economy.

3. Authoritarianism and Aggression

• Rise of Totalitarian Regimes

  • Germany: Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party rose to power in 1933; ultranationalism, anti-Semitism, militarism.

  • Italy: Mussolini consolidated fascist control and pursued expansion in Africa (Ethiopia, 1935).

  • Japan: Militarists gained control; invaded Manchuria (1931) and later China (1937).

• Characteristics of Authoritarian States

  • One-party rule, censorship, secret police, suppression of dissent.

  • Propaganda glorifying the leader and state.

4. The Road to War in Europe and Asia

• Japanese Expansion

  • Invasion of Manchuria (1931); full-scale invasion of China (1937).

• Italian Expansion

  • Conquest of Ethiopia (1935–1936); sanctions resisted by fascist Italy.

• German Expansion

  • Violated Versailles: remilitarized Rhineland (1936), annexed Austria (Anschluss, 1938), seized Sudetenland (Munich Agreement, 1938); then occupied rest of Czechoslovakia (March 1939).

• Outbreak of WWII

  • Nazi–Soviet Pact (August 1939) — non-aggression with secret plans to divide Poland.

  • September 1, 1939: Germany invaded Poland; Britain and France declared war.

5. World War II: The European Theater

• Early German Victories (1939–1941)

  • Blitzkrieg tactics; Fall of France (1940), Dunkirk evacuation, Battle of Britain (1940).

• Turning Points

  • Invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa, 1941); stalled at Moscow; defeated at Stalingrad (1942–1943).

  • North Africa: El Alamein (1942) victory for the Allies.

  • D-Day (Normandy, June 6, 1944) opened the Western Front.

• Defeat of Germany

  • Soviet advance east; Allied advance west; Hitler died in April 1945; Germany surrendered on V-E Day, May 8, 1945.

6. World War II: The Pacific Theater

• Japanese Expansion

  • December 7, 1941: Pearl Harbor attack drew the US into war.

  • Rapid Japanese conquests across Southeast Asia and the Pacific.

• Turning Points

  • Battle of Midway (June 1942): US victory halted Japanese expansion.

  • Island-hopping campaign: captured key islands, bypassed others.

  • Battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa (1945) brought US forces closer to Japan.

• End of War

  • Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima (Aug 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (Aug 9, 1945); Japan surrendered on Aug 15, 1945 (V-J Day).

7. The Holocaust

• Nazi Racial Ideology

  • Persecuted Jews, Roma, disabled people, Slavs, and others as inferior; promoted Aryan supremacy.

• From Persecution to Genocide

  • Nuremberg Laws (1935) stripped Jews of citizenship.

  • Kristallnacht (1938) attacked Jewish property and synagogues.

  • Final Solution: extermination in concentration/extermination camps (Auschwitz, Treblinka, Sobibor); approx. 6\,\text{million} Jews murdered, plus millions of others.

8. The War’s Impact

• Human Cost

  • Estimated 60$-$70 million dead worldwide; widespread civilian casualties; massive destruction.

• Economic Consequences

  • Europe/Asia devastated; the US emerged as an economic superpower.

• Political Changes

  • Fall of fascist regimes; Soviet influence expanded in Eastern Europe; beginnings of decolonization.

• Social Effects

  • Women entered workforce in large numbers; expansion of civil rights movements and cultural shifts; wartime trauma influenced art/literature.

9. Conclusion

• The war reorganized international order and accelerated decolonization, while setting the stage for the Cold War.

Chapter 27: The Cold War and Postwar Society, 1945–1970

1. The Origins of the Cold War

• Definition

  • Geopolitical, ideological, and economic struggle between the US-led Western bloc and the Soviet-led Eastern bloc, roughly 1945–1991.

• Postwar Tensions

  • Differing visions: free markets/democratic governments (US) vs. communist regimes tied to Moscow (USSR).

  • Yalta (Feb 1945) & Potsdam (Jul 1945) conferences revealed disagreements over postwar borders, Germany’s future, and Eastern Europe’s politics.

• Early Flashpoints

  • Soviet occupation of Eastern Europe; establishment of communist governments in Poland, Hungary, Romania, East Germany.

  • Winston Churchill’s 1946 Iron Curtain speech symbolized Europe’s division.

2. The Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan

• Truman Doctrine (1947)

  • US pledged political/military/economic support to nations resisting communism (initially Greece and Turkey).

• Marshall Plan (1948–1952)

  • {13}\text{ billion} in aid to rebuild Western European economies, prevent communist appeal, and foster economic integration.

  • Successful in revitalizing European industry and trade.

3. The Berlin Crisis and NATO

• Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1948–1949)

  • USSR cut roads/rail to West Berlin; Allies organized a massive airlift delivering essentials for nearly a year.

  • Blockade lifted in May 1949.

• Formation of NATO (1949)

  • North Atlantic Treaty Organization; military alliance of US, Canada, and Western European nations to deter Soviet aggression.

• Warsaw Pact (1955)

  • Soviet-led alliance of Eastern bloc countries as a counterweight to NATO.

4. The Korean War (1950–1953)

• Causes

  • Korea divided at the 38th parallel after WWII; North (communist) backed by USSR/China; South (anti-communist) backed by US.

• Course

  • Early North Korean advances; UN counteroffensive led by General MacArthur; Chinese intervention pushed UN forces back; stalemate ensued.

• Outcome

  • Armistice in 1953; border near original line; underscored limits of containment and solidified Cold War divisions in Asia.

5. The Nuclear Arms Race and Space Race

• Arms Race

  • US held nuclear monopoly initially; USSR tested an atomic bomb in 1949; hydrogen bombs (early 1950s) escalated destructive potential.

  • Doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD).

• Space Race

  • USSR launched Sputnik (1957); US responded with NASA (1958); Yuri Gagarin (1961) first human in space; Apollo 11 landed on the Moon (1969).

6. Decolonization and the Cold War

• Global Context

  • Postwar weakening of European powers accelerated independence movements in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East; US and USSR competed for influence in new states.

• Key Examples

  • India and Pakistan independence (1947).

  • African decolonization (late 1950s–1960s): Ghana (1957), Congo (1960), Algeria (1962).

  • Vietnam’s struggle for independence from France evolved into a Cold War battleground.

7. The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

• Background

  • Castro’s 1959 revolution; Bay of Pigs (1961) failed attempt to overthrow him.

• Crisis

  • Discovery of Soviet missiles in Cuba; US imposed a naval quarantine; Khrushchev agreed to withdraw missiles in exchange for US non-invasion pledge and secret removal of US missiles from Turkey.

• Significance

  • Closest the Cold War came to nuclear war; led to improved direct communications (hotline) and intensified arms control talks.

8. Western Europe’s Economic Miracle

• Reconstruction & Growth

  • Marshall Plan, economic integration, modernization.

  • Formation of the European Economic Community (EEC, 1957) promoting free trade.

• Social Changes

  • Rising living standards, consumer goods, welfare states; expansion of higher education and cultural exchange.

9. The Civil Rights Movement in the United States

• Origins and Goals

  • Aimed to end racial segregation/discrimination; secure voting rights and equality under the law.

• Key Events

  • Brown v. Board of Education (1954) desegregated public schools.

  • Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–1956) led by Martin Luther King Jr.

  • Civil Rights Act (1964) and Voting Rights Act (1965) outlawed segregation and discriminatory voting practices.

• Impact

  • Inspired other social movements (women’s rights, anti-war movements).

10. The Vietnam War and Cold War Tensions

• Background

  • After France’s defeat, Vietnam divided at the 17th parallel; Ho Chi Minh’s communist North vs US-backed South.

• Course

  • Viet Cong guerrilla warfare; US bombing campaigns and troop deployments; widespread protests globally.

• Impact

  • Deepened Cold War divisions; eroded trust in US government (credibility gap).

  • Paris Peace Accords (1973) led to US withdrawal; Saigon fell in 1975.

11. Conclusion

• The early Cold War era reshaped global politics into a bipolar order.

• Nuclear weapons, ideological rivalry, and decolonization defined international relations.

• Domestic social change and economic growth transformed societies, but civil rights struggles, wars (e.g., Vietnam), and ideological contests produced lasting tensions into the 1970s and beyond.

참 Notes: All dates/numbers are included as YYYY or ranges where shown in the provided transcript. The notes preserve the structure and all major/minor points, with cross-links to foundational ideas (e.g., nationalism as a unifying/reactionary force, liberalism vs. conservatism, imperialism’s moral critiques). Where relevant, connections to earlier topics (Congress of Vienna, Metternich, the Revolutions of 1848, the shift from revolutionary to state-building nationalism) are highlighted to aid synthesis across chapters.