try again mt 2 psych

working memory

• Extremely limited in capacity 

• ‘Digit span’ = how many #’s can you successfully repeat back 

• William james - ongoing train of thought and theres things that go away but come back 

• H.M.

  • Intractable temporal life epilepsy 

  • Treated with hippocampal resection and got anterograde amnesia

  • LTM severely impaired but STM retained intact

  • Normal short term memory for auditory material (7 +/- 2 items) 

  • Worked with same researchers for 50 years but didn't remember them 

  • Deficit highlighted by extended digit span task - at their limit then +1 to get more 

  • He could not recall a single string 1 higher despite many repetitions 

• E.P

  • Viral encephalitis - lost ability to create new LTM but normal STM

• K.F.

  • Damage in left parieto-occipital region of the brain because of a motorcycle accident

  • Had normal LTM but impaired STM

• Recency effect - (the last numbers said) will lose of there is distraction in between recall

• Primary effect - had undivided attention to repeat so it stuck 

• 5 word list errors -

  • made when words sounded alike (house vs mouse) 

  • due to verbal rehearsal → STM

• 10 world list errors 

  • semantically similar words (labor vs work) 

  • Due to memory based on meaning of words → LTM

• George sperling - felt like they faded too fast but he knew the info was there before 

  • Partial report - cued letters 

    • Performance plateaus at about 4-5 letters 

    • Can report at least 3 items per row so 3*3=9 out of 12 is stored

• Sperlings idea = STM = sensory and working

  • A high capacity ‘sensory memory’ which quickly decays (iconic/visual  memory)

  • A limited capacity working memory of only 3-4 items 

  • Duration is less than 1 second for visual and auditory info 

  • Vulnerable to visual distraction (masking) 

• Phonological loop (wm)

  • Seems to store sounds 

  • Short words are easier (causes differences between languages)

  • Doing a speaking task while remembering (tah tah tah) 

    • concurrent articulation task reduces wm capacity 

    • reduces sound-alike errors 

  • Similar sounding words causes interference independent of meaning

  • Counting backwards or other speaking tasks interferes with this system 

• Visuospatial sketchpad 

  • Manipulate number of things to remember (set size) 

  • Concurrent verbal task WM (load vs no load) did not have effect 

    • verbal and visual memory use separate resources

  • Performance decline as set size increased from 4-12 items 

• Are visual and spatial working memory the same processes 

  • Remembering visual but have spatial interference - bad and vice versa 

  • They hurt each other and they not overlapping 

• George miller - ‘my problem is that I have been persecuted by an integer’ (+/– 7 things)

  • Not in information but 7 items/chunks  

  • 16 #’s is hard but 4 years is easy (1941200119842025 = 1941 2001 1985 2025)

• S.F - sophomore w avg grades

  • 230 one-hour training sessions for year and half

  • Digit-span task and add 1 each time he recalled correctly 

  • Half of trials he would describe how he did it 

  • Used mnemonic associations (3492 = 3 min 49.2 sec mile time)

  • But after tested with letters instead of words he remembered 6 - wm didn't change 

• 7 average capacity 

  • Result of unconscious chunking but actual number is closer to 4

  • Interim memory - a set of ‘buffers’ for working with info that is no longer perceptually present 

• Why do we care?

  • Correlates to life success, iq, reading comprehension, sat score

  • Reading span - read or listen to a list of 2-6 sentence and recall last word of sentence

  • Operation span - solve simple math and read the word aloud 

  • N-back - previous stim the same as the last one 

  • The more “working” the task the better the correlations 

• WM → LTM?? Modal model

  • Wm is the process of encoding into LTM

  • Would predict that things we interact w frequently are well represented in LTM

  • Modal model says stm required for entry into ltm but KF had no stm and did have ltm 

  • Modal says length of time in stm determine likelihood of ltm storage (what about the penny tho)

• Rehearsal 

  • Maintenance rehearsal - reciting

  • Relational or elaborate rehearsal - linking

  • Repeated exposure does not help memory much - but associations and linking matter a lot 

• Learning

  • Incidental - learning w/out intention to (deeply/neural processing improves)

  • Intentional - deliberate with expectation memory will be tested later 

  • Connections promoter retrieval - organization

Learning as prep for retrieval 

• Encoding = putting something into your ltm/memorizing 

• Memory is context based → when will u need this info again 

• Memory is state dependent (better when states are the same at learning and recall)

  • Physical match (diving, smell)  and emotional match (happy, sad,)

  • Adaptive function = most relevant mems are most accessible

• Context dependent memory = you don’t just ‘know’ or ‘not know’ it - they're in your mind but hard to access in wrong circumstances 

Spreading activation & priming

• Spreading activation - travels from one concept to another via associative links 

  • Helps explain context effects and why partial information helps in retrieval 

• Encoding specificity 

  • State-dependent learning an context reinstatement 

  • “Lifted” - cues something heavy vs “Tuned” - cues musical instrument 

  • This kind of activation spreading happens automatically - explains repetition priming

  • Nurse and doctor related but bread and chair are not 

Explicit vs implicit memory:

• amnesia (from medial temporal lobes) does NOT impact all types of LTM

• Explicit test of memory - recall facts or events

• Implicit tests - guess words based on word fragments - amnesiacs often show intact implicit memory 

• Implicit memory tends to last longer 

  • Priming 

  • Aftereffects

  • Muscle memory (bike)

  • Skills (mirror tracing)

• Source memory - if available, recognition responses are similar in mechanism to recall “i saw this word before”

• Familiarity - recognition based on feelings of familiarity 

  • Fictitious names primed were remembered and assumed famous 

  • Don’t know why names feel familiar 

• Source confusion - eye witnesses select from a photo lineup based on familiarity and not recollection 

Amnesia - episodic vs semantic memory 

• Episodic = memory for personal events (mental time travel for humans)

  • First day of a new job

  • Wedding 

  • Guests at best friends bday party

• Semantic = facts and knowledge 

  • Grass is green

  • Names of colors

  • How to use the phone 

• Amnesiacs 

  • Damaged hippocampus - no episodic memory, cannot form new memories of events 

  • Semantic memory intact & can remember general information about the past 

  • Retrograde = cannot remember old memories (brief when u get a concussion)

    • Recent memories continue to undergo neurological change and more susceptible to amnesia 

  • Anterograde = cannot form new episodic memories 

2/13/25

LTM 2

Forgetting:

• Ebbinghaus forgetting curve - quick loss at first then slow decay (100 58 44 33 25)

• Autobiographical memory - longer time course of consolidation 

  • considerable loss for three years then fairly stable memory 

  • Consolidation - time it takes to imprint or keep in mind after period of time so its available 

• Why should we have bad memory?

  • Virtually limitless memory 

  • Could not forget irrelevant details

  • Bad at inductive reasoning (filling in the blanks)

  • Anderson and schooler 1991- It is efficient for out memory system to make recent and frequent memories more accessible 

  • A way to prioritize what is important and make it more accessible 

• Reminiscent bump = violation of forgetting law 

  • We can rehearse memories and re-encode them which strengthens them and slows decay 

  • Memories follow a predictable ‘forgetting function’ which shows evidence of consolidation 

  • Rehearsal can make memories stronger leading to on avg a reminiscence bump in autobiographical memory and for some, perfect memory for the things they repeatedly rehearse

• Explanations for forgetting

  • Decay - memories fade and disappear over time

  • Interference - memory is still there but we can’t retrieve it

  • In recall test, relearning same words showed much better results meaning those memories had been interfered and not decayed

• Interference

  • Retroactive - new memories interfere with recall of old info 

    • Remember new phone number and not old one

  • Proactive - old memories interfere with recall of new info

    • Remember old home address and forget new one

    • Wickens et al 1976 - interference from shared meanings of words 

    • Ex: Leaning all the fruits interfered with recall while the group that had professions and fruits had better recall 

  • Sleep - no interference 

  • Alcohol - causes anterograde amnesia but also enhances memory for info encoded before drinking bc it prevents interference

• Studying 

  • Massed practice = many trials with the same stimulus are undertaken without interruption (better for ST retention but not always) 

  • Spaced practice = the trials with the same stimulus are separated by other stimuli (better for LT retention )

  • Encoding variability - in subsequent encounters of a stimulus different aspects of a  stimulus are focused on during encoding (and remember context is always encoded with an item)

  • Spacing increases encoding variability there are more ways in which information can be accessed and retrieved 

  • Effort - if you already have an item active in your mind you may pay less attention to encoding a new trace (alternatively, effortful retrieval may itself be helpful to memory, testing effect)

  • Spacing effects - convincing your brain you might need the info even if you haven't used it in a while

• Testing effect:

  • More than just an assessment tool, enhances memory retention to a greater extent than additional studying 

  • Spaced learning and repeated testing = keys to memory 

  • Spaced learning = convince your brain you’ll need this info over long intervals

  • Testing effect = retrieval practice is much better than continued studying; maybe because it builds new connections to other cues

  • Understanding is more important than repetition or anything else - if you fully understand materials you'll be much better able to remember them than any other way 

• Memory is constructive, not a video camera 

  • Reconstructive process rather than simple and accurate reproductive process 

  • Not always accurate representations of past 

  • Memory errors - DRM procedure (remembered a word that wasn't in list because it fit the category = mistake ‘recall’ of theme words 

Source monitoring is a particular challenge 

• Memory is reconstructive and malleable 

  • Filter out or fill in missing pieces of info to recall coherent ⇒ misinformation effect : incorporating misleading info into ones memory of an event 

  • Elizabeth loftus

• Source memory - process of determining origins of our memories 

  • Source monitoring error = misidentifying source of memory 

  • Very frequent source of false memories 

  • Fictional names were thought to be famous

Emotional memory 

• Remembered more easily and vividly 

  • Emotion improves memory and benefit becomes greater with time (may enhance consolidation)

  • General finding is ‘overfocus’ → remember the gun better but the perpetrator the same or even less well 

• Flashbulb memories 

  • Memories for surrounding shocking highly charge important events (9/11)

  • Where you were and what you were doing 

  • Subjective experiences - highly emotional vivid and very detailed 

  • Can be inaccurate or lacking in detail despite confidence 

  • We forget our individual memory of these vents at almost exactly same pave of other autobiographical memories 

  • Narrative rehearsal hypothesis - repeated reviewing/hearing of event (constructive memory)

False memories

• Can we implant false memories 

• Can remember the story but don't remember the source or how you heard it