Unit 1: Music Fundamentals I: Pitch, Major Scales and Key Signatures, Rhythm, Meter, and Expressive Elements

Pitch and Pitch Notation

Pitch

• Pitch - The highness or lowness of a sound. It is determined by the frequency of the sound wave.

• Measured in hertz (Hz).

The Grand Staff

• Grand staff - A system of two staves - the top staff uses the treble clef and the bottom staff uses the bass clef.

  • System - When multiple staves are connected together by bar lines, brackets, or a brace.

  • Neutral clef - Used for rhythm only or for pitchless or untuned instruments such as triangle, cymbals, or tambourine.

The Staff and Clefs

• Staf (Staves) - Where most music is written. A space of five lines and four spaces.

  • Lines and spaces are numbered from bottom to top.

    

• Clefs - What determines the names of the lines and spaces used.

  • Soprano

  • Mezzo soprano

  • Alto

  • Tenor

  • Baritone

• C clef - Sign used for all of the previously mentioned vocal ranges.

  

• Movable C clef - The clef that locates middle C and moves around from line to line to designate range.

• Alto clef - When the C clef is placed on the third line of the staff.

  

• Tenor clef - When the C clef is placed on the fourth line of the staff.

  

• Treble clef - When the G clef is placed on the second line of the staff.

  

• Bass clef - When the F clef is placed on the fourth line of the staff.

  

Accidentals

• Ledger lines - Small lines that extend the staff while still keeping the five lines and four spaces intact.

• Half step - The smallest space or distance between notes.

• Sharp - Raises the pitch one-half step above its natural pitch.

• Flat - Lowers the pitch one-half step below its natural pitch.

• Natural - The musical symbol that cancels out a flat or a sharp.

• Double sharp - Musical symbol used to raise a pitch by two half steps.

• Double flat - Musical symbol that lowers the pitch by two half steps.

Rhythmic Values

The Dot and the Tie

• Dot and tie - Two symbols that extend the length or duration of a note.

• Dot - Used to extend the value of a single note by one-half of its original value.

  • A dotted quarter note divides into three eighth notes.

• Double dot - Lengthens the dotted note value by half the length of the first dot.

• Tie - It combines the durational values of two or more notes of the same pitch using a curved line.

Half Steps and Whole Steps

• Half step - The smallest space or distance between notes.

• Whole step - The distance between two notes that are two semitones or two half steps apart.

Intervals

• Interval - The distance between two pitches.

  • They can be melodic or harmonic.

  • The exact interval size is described by quantity and quality.

    • Quality - Expressed by a number and determined by counting the distance between one letter name and the next letter name.

• All intervals built from the tonic up to notes within a major scale are either major or perfect.

• Perfect intervals

  • Unison

  • Perfect fourth

  • Perfect fifth

  • Perfect eighth

• Major intervals

  • Major second

  • Major third

  • Major sixth

  • Major seventh

• A minor interval is one-half step smaller than major.

• Diminished interval - An interval that is one-half step smaller than perfect or minor.

• Augmented interval - An interval that is one-half step larger than major or perfect.

• Enharmonic intervals - They sound the same but are spelled differently and function differently.

• Doubly augmented interval - When a major or perfect interval is made one whole step larger without changing the letter names of the pitches.

• Doubly diminished interval - When a minor or perfect interval is made one whole step smaller without changing the letter names of the pitches.

• Consonant intervals - Stable

• Dissonant intervals - Unstable, the impression of activity or tension.

Major Scales and Scale Degrees

Major Scales

• Major scale - Created using a pattern for whole and half steps. It’s asymmetrical.

The Circle of Fifths

• The circle of fifths - Demonstrates the relationship of the tonal centers to each other.

Key Signature

• Key signature - A form of shorthand that dispenses with the writing of accidentals (sharps and flats) for the notes affected by the pattern.

• The key signature is always written on the staff between the clef and the meter signature. The placement of sharps alternates in a down-up pattern.

  

• The placement of flats on the staff alternates direction in an up-down pattern in both treble and bass clefs.

  

Identifying the Key from the Key Signature

• For sharps - The last sharp in the key signature is scale degree 7, so the name of the key is up one-half step.

• For flats - The last flat in the key signature is scale degree 4, so the name of the key is the next to the last flat in the key signature.

Simple and Compound Meters

Simple Meter

• The top number represents the number of beats per measure and the bottom number represents the fractional equivalent of the note that is the beat.

  

• Common time - Represented by a lowercase c, it is used to represent 4/4.

• Alla breve (Cut time) - Designated by a c with a line going through, is a substitute of 2/2.

Compound Meter

• In compound meter, the time signature represents the subdivision, not the beat.

Asymmetrical Meters

• Asymmetrical meters - Meters that have beat units of unequal length.

  • The most common ones have 5 or 7 as the top number.

Meter and Time Signatures

• Meter - The organization of musical time into recurring patterns of strong and weak beats.

  • Duple (Strong weak) - Two beats per measure

  • Triple (Strong weak weak) - Three beats per measure

  • Quadruple (Strong weak less strong weak) - Four beats per measure

Downbeats and Upbeats

• Downbeat - The first beat of the measure.

• Anacrusis - Songs that begin with one or more notes that precede the first full measure.

• Syncopation - The rhythmic displacement of the expected strong beat created by using dots, rests, ties, accent marks, rhythm, and dynamics.

• Hemiola - A special type of syncopation where the bead is temporarily regrouped into twos.

  • Cross-rhythm - Metric device where the rhythmic relation of three notes occurs in the time of two.

Rhythmic Patterns

Notation

• Parts of a musical note

  • Head

  • Stem

  • Flag

  • Beam

• Note head - Body of the note

• Stem - Part of a note that is common to all note types shorter in duration than the whole note.

• Flag - Part of the note that is common to all note types shorter in duration than a quarter note.

  • More flags = Shorter note

• Music notation symbols

  • Bar line - The vertical line that divides the staff into measures.

  • Measure - The unit of space between the bar lines.

  • Double bar line - Two lines that signal the end of a section of music.

  • Final bar line - Indicates the end of the piece or composition.

Rhythmic Notation Guidelines

• For pitches on the middle line and above on the staff, the stems go downward.

• For pitches below the middle line, the stems extend upward.

• When drawing notes with single flags, the flag always goes on the right side of the note.

• Rhythmic patterns should be grouped with the beam to indicate beat units.

Tempo

• Tempo - The speed of the beat.

• There are several types of tempo in music, including:

  • Adagio - slow and stately

  • Allegro - fast and lively

  • Andante - moderately slow and flowing

  • Largo - very slow and broad

  • Presto - very fast and lively

These are just a few examples, as there are many other tempo markings used in music.

Dynamics and Articulation

Dynamics

• Dynamics refer to the volume or intensity of a musical performance.

• They are indicated by symbols placed above or below the staff.

• The most common symbols used to indicate dynamics are:

  • p (piano) - soft

  • f (forte) - loud

  • mf (mezzo forte) - moderately loud

  • mp (mezzo piano) - moderately soft

  • pp (pianissimo) - very soft

  • ff (fortissimo) - very loud

• Dynamics can also be indicated by Italian words such as crescendo (gradually getting louder) and decrescendo (gradually getting softer).

Types of Dynamics

• There are two main types of dynamics:

  • Absolute dynamics - Refers to the specific volume level indicated by the symbol or word.

  • Relative dynamics - Refers to the change in volume level from one symbol or word to another.

Articulation

• Articulation - The way in which notes are played or sung.

  • It can greatly affect the overall sound and feel of a musical performance.

• The most common articulation names are:

  • staccato - short and detached

  • legato - smooth and connected

  • accent - emphasized or accented

  • marcato - strongly accented

  • tenuto - held for full value

• Articulation can also be indicated by symbols such as dots, lines, and accents placed above or below the note.

Unit 2: Music Fundamentals II: Minor Scales and Key Signatures, Melody, Timbre, and Texture

Minor Scales: Natural, Harmonic, and Melodic

• Scales - An ordered collection of pitches in whole- and half-step patterns.

  • The word comes from Latin “scalae” meaning stairs.

• Natural minor scale - The sixth scale in the rotation of church modes.

• There are three forms of the minor scale and they all come from the natural minor scale which is:

  

• Three forms of minor - Natural, harmonic, and melodic.

  • Minor pentachord - Same first five notes that the three forms of minor start with.

• Natural form of minor - No alterations to the key signature.

• Harmonic form of minor - The 7th scale degree is raised both ascending and descending.

• Melodic form of minor - The 6th and 7th scale degrees are raised.

Scale Degree Names

• Scale degree - Each step of the scale.

• Tonic - The beginning pitch of the scale.

• Scale degree 1 - The tone on which the scale is built, the tonal center.

  • Do = Tonic

• Scale degree 2 - Above the tonic.

  • Re = Supertonic

• Scale degree 3 - Halfway between the tonic and dominant.

  • Mi = Mediant

• Scale degree 4 - A fifth below the tonic

  • Fa = Subdominant

• Scale degree 5 - Perfect fifth above the tonic

  • So (Sol) = Dominant

• Scale degree 6 - In between the subdominant and the tonic

  • La = Submediant

• Scale degree 7 - Half step below Do.

  • Ti = Leading tone

Minor Scales

• Natural minor scale

  • The 7th scale degree is a whole step below tonic, meaning it’s subtonic.

    

• Harmonic minor scale

  • The 7th scale degree is raised and a leading tone, it is one-half step below the tonic.

    

• Melodic minor scale

  • The 7th scale degree is leading and the 6th scale is the raised submediant.

Relative Keys: Determining Relative Minor Key and Notating Key Signatures

• Parallel keys - Major and minor keys with different key signature but same tonic.

• Relative keys - Major and minor scales that have the same pitches and key signature.

Minor Key Signatures

• Three forms of minor - Natural, harmonic, and melodic.

• Natural form of minor - No alterations to the key signature.

• Harmonic form of minor - The 7th scale degree is raised both ascending and descending.

• Melodic form of minor - The 6th and 7th scale degrees are raised.

Circle of Fifths for Minor Keys

Key Relationships: Parallel, Closely Related, and Distantly Related Keys

Parallel Keys

• Parallel keys - Keys that share the same tonic note but have different key signatures.

  • For example, the parallel key of C major is C minor.

• Parallel keys are said to have a "parallel" relationship because they share the same tonic note.

Closely Related Keys

• Closely related keys - Keys that have a small number of differences in their key signatures.

• The most closely related keys are the keys that share the most notes in common.

  • For example, the closely related keys of C major are G major, F major, D minor, and A minor.

• Closely related keys are said to have a "relative" relationship because they share many of the same notes.

Distantly Related Keys

• Distantly related keys - Keys that have a large number of differences in their key signatures.

• The most distantly related keys are the keys that share the fewest notes in common.

  • For example, the distantly related keys of C major are E major, Bb major, Ab minor, and F# minor.

• Distantly related keys are said to have a "distant" relationship because they share very few of the same notes.

Modulation

• Modulation - The process of changing from one key or tonal center to another.

  • Usually occurs to closely related keys because they have common chords between them.

  • Occurs within a phrase by using a chord common to both the old and new key or by changing tonal centers directly as a new phrase or section begins.

Other Scales: Chromatic, Whole-Tone, and Pentatonic

The Chromatic Scale

• Chromatic scale - Symmetrical scale with all pitches spaced a half step apart.

  • Sharps are used for the ascending scale.

  • Enharmonic equivalent flats are used for the descending scale.

Whole-Tone Scale

• Heptatonic scales - There are seven tones in the scale. Major and minor scales are heptatonic.

• Hexatonic scale - There are six tones in this scale. The whole-tone scale is hexatonic.

• Whole-tone scale - Each pitch is a whole step apart.

Pentatonic Scale

• Pentatonic scale - Has five tones. It contains no half steps or active tones.

  • Major pentatonic - To build it, in the Circle of Fifths, start from C up to 5 consecutive pitches.

  • Relative minor pentatonic - It uses the same pitch as the C pentatonic but it starts on A.

Interval Size and Quality

• Interval - The distance between two pitches.

  • They can be melodic or harmonic.

  • The exact interval size is described by quantity and quality.

    • Quality - Expressed by a number and determined by counting the distance between one letter name and the next letter name.

• A minor interval is one-half step smaller than major.

• Diminished interval - An interval that is one-half step smaller than perfect or minor.

• Augmented interval - An interval that is one-half step larger than major or perfect.

• Consonant intervals - Stable

• Dissonant intervals - Unstable, the impression of activity or tension.

Interval Inversion and Compound Intervals

• Inverted intervals - Intervals are inverted by transferring the lower note an octave higher or by transferring the higher note an octave lower.

  • Major intervals invert to minor intervals.

  • Augmented intervals invert to diminished intervals.

• Simple intervals - Intervals that are one octave or smaller in quantity.

  • They are expanded to a compound interval by adding seven

• Compound intervals - Intervals that are larger than an octave.

  • They are reduced to a simple interval by subtracting seven.

• Timbre - Determined by how the sound is produced, what the instrument is made of, and the range of an instrument.

Melodic Features

• Melody - A logical progression of pitches and rhythms. A linear succession of notes that form a recognizable unit, which is used to separate a melody from random pitches.

  • The melody is the most important part of a composition.

  • Melodies don’t always begin on the downbeat.

  • A good melody must have movement.

  • The best melodies are contoured and contained or limited in range usually within an octave.

  • Longer melodies use repetitions, have a distinct form and are built from simple motifs and short melodic phrases.

• Conjunct - When the melody uses stepwise motion.

• Disjunct - When the melody uses skipwise motion.

Melodic Transposition

• Motivic transformation - Changing or transforming the original motif by using these compositional devices:

  • Fragmentation - When a portion of a motif or a larger musical idea is used, often repeated, and/or varied.

  • Melodic sequence - A form of variation that refers to repeating the original motif starting on a different pitch.

  • Melodic inversion (Inversion) - The imitation of the melody performed upside down from the original melody.

    • It moves in the opposite direction by the same diatonic interval.

    • Mirror inversion - If the inverted intervals are exact.

  • Retrograde - When the melody is played backwards.

    • Retrograde inversion - It plays the pitches of the original motif backwards and inverted.

• Rhythmic transformation - Changes the motif or theme’s rhythm in order to vary it from previous statements of the motif.

  • Augmentation - A form of rhythmic variation where the pitches remain the same but the rhythms are equally lengthened (note values are made longer).

  • Diminution - The opposite of augmentation, note values are made shorter.

  • Rhythmic displacement - Keeps the original rhythmic structure intact but moves it to a different place in the measure.

Texture and Texture Types

• Texture - Basic element of music. How much is going on in the music at any given moment.

Types of Texture

• Monophonic - Has only one melodic line with no harmony or counterpoint.

• Homophonic - Has one melodic line that draws your attention. The other parts provide accompaniment.

  • Chordal homophony - Every line or voice moving together with exactly the same or nearly the same rhythm.

  • Melody with accompaniment - Clearly has only one melodic line, but the harmony is not limited to chords moving together.

• Ostinato - Short melodic, rhythmic, or harmonic pattern that is repeated throughout an entire composition or some portion of a composition.

• Ragtime - An American style of music that was popular at the turn of the 20th century.

• Sequence - The repeated melodic pattern at a different interval.

• Heterophonic - There’s only one melody but different variations of it are being sung or played at the same time.

Texture Devices

• Alberti bass - An accompaniment figure played on a keyboard instrument with the left hand. The chords are played as arpeggios or broken chords.

• Walking bass - A style of bass accompaniment or line that creates a feeling of regular quarter-note movement, similar to the regular alternation of feet while walking.

Polyphonic Textural Devices

• Polyphonic (Polyphony, Counterpoint, Contrapuntal) - If more than one independent melody is occurring at the same time.

  • Imitative - If the individual lines are similar in their shapes and sounds.

    • Fugue - A form of composition popular in the Baroque era, in which a theme or subject is introduced by one voice and is imitated by other voices in succession.

  • Nonimitative - If the voice shows little or no resemblance to each other.

  • Countermelody - A secondary melody or line written to be played simultaneously with a more prominent melody.

Other Textural Devices

• Solo - A single performer or a passage that is to be performed by a single performer.

• Soli - A directive to perform an indicated passage of a composition with an entire section of an ensemble.

  • Tutti - All members play.

Rhythmic Devices

• Syncopation - The rhythmic displacement of the expected strong beat created by using dots, rests, ties, accent marks, rhythm, and dynamics.

• Hemiola - A special type of syncopation where the bead is temporarily regrouped into twos.

Accents

• Accents - Markings used in music notation to indicate emphasis or stress on a particular note or beat.

• There are different types of accents:

• Regular accent - Indicated by a diagonal line above or below the note.

• Strong accent - Indicated by a vertical line above the note.

• Staccato accent - Indicated by a dot above or below the note, and it indicates that the note should be played short and detached.

Agogic Accent

• Agogic accent - A type of accent that is created by emphasizing the duration of a note.

  • It is indicated by a small dot placed above or below the note, and it indicates that the note should be played longer than the surrounding notes.

• Fermata - A symbol used in music notation to indicate that a note or rest should be held longer than its written value.

  • It is indicated by a dot with a curved line above or below it, and it is placed above or below the note or rest that it affects.

• Tenuto - A marking used in music notation to indicate that a note should be held for its full value.

  • It is indicated by a horizontal line above or below the note, and it indicates that the note should be played with a slight emphasis.

• Meter - The organization of beats into regular groups.

• There are different types of meter:

• Duple meter - Two beats per measure

• Triple meter - Three beats per measure

• Quadruple meter - Four beats per measure.

• Other meter types include:

• Compound meter - A combination of duple and triple meter.

• Irregular meter - It has an irregular grouping of beats.

Unit 3: Music Fundamentals III: Triads and Seventh Chords

Triad and Chord Qualities

• Chord - A group of pitches that forms a single harmonic idea.

• Triad - A three-note chord made up of two intervals stacked in thirds.

• Root - The lower note of the chord.

• Third - The middle note because it’s an interval of a third above the root.

• Fifth - The upper note, it’s a fifth above the root.

• Major triads are indicated with uppercase Roman numbers.

• Minor triads are indicated with lowercase Roman numbers.

• Subtonic triad - The chord built on the seventh scale degree in natural minor. It’s a major chord, a whole step below the tonic.

• Commonly used triads from natural minor:

  • Major mediant (III)

  • VII

  • Subtonic

Seventh Chords

• Seventh chord - Contains four notes. All of them are unstable because the arrangement of tones contains an interval of a seventh.

  • Root

  • Third

  • Fifth

  • Seventh

• Five Basic Seventh Chords

  • Major seventh (major triad + major seventh)

  • Dominant seventh (major triad + minor seventh)

  • Minor seventh (minor triad + minor seventh)

  • Half-diminished seventh (diminished triad + minor seventh)

  • Fully-diminished seventh (diminished triad + diminished seventh)

• A seventh chord in first inversion has the third of the chord in the bass.

  • The root of the chord is the interval of a sixth above the bass.

  • The inversion symbol is 6/5.

• A seventh chord in second inversion has the fifth of the chord in the bass.

  • The root of the chord is the interval of a fourth above the bass, and the added seventh is a third above the bass.

  • The inversion symbol is 4/3.

• A seventh chord in third inversion has the seventh of the chord in the bass.

  • The root of the chord is a second (the inversion of a seventh) above.

  • The inversion is written as 4/2 or 2/1.

• An easy way to remember the inversions is the "Inversion Hotline”, 664-765-4342.

• The fully-diminished seventh chord (diminished triad and diminished seventh) occurs on the leading tone in harmonic minor.

• The V7 chord is the same in major and harmonic minor. It only occurs on the dominant.

Diatonic Chords

• Diatonic chords - A set of chords that are derived from the notes of a particular key. They are built using only the notes of the major or minor scale of that key. There are seven diatonic chords in each key, each one built on a different note of the scale.

Major Diatonic Chords

• The major diatonic chords are built using the notes of the major scale. They are as follows:

  • I (major)

  • ii (minor)

  • iii (minor)

  • IV (major)

  • V (major)

  • vi (minor)

  • vii° (diminished)

The I, IV, and V chords are major, while the ii, iii, and vi chords are minor. The vii° chord is diminished.

Minor Diatonic Chords

• The minor diatonic chords are built using the notes of the natural minor scale. They are as follows:

  • i (minor)

  • ii° (diminished)

  • III (major)

  • iv (minor)

  • v (minor)

  • VI (major)

  • VII (major)

The i, iv, and v chords are minor, while the III, VI, and VII chords are major. The ii° chord is diminished.

Figured Bass

• Figured bass - Consists of the bass line and the Arabic numbers under the bass line that represent the intervals above the bass to be played.

  • The voicing of the chord and the linear movement of each line is determined by the performer.

• Purpose of inversion symbols - To indicate the lowest-sounding note within a chord.

• The Arabic numbers used in inversions indicate the same thing when used as part of figured bass but the added accidentals, slashes, or plus signs that may be part of figured bass are not included in inversions.

• Chords to use when harmonizing:

Unit 4: Harmony and Voice Leading I: Chord Function, Cadence, and Phrase

Harmony and Voice Leading

• Voice leading - The art of arranging musical voices in a way that creates smooth and logical progressions. It is an essential aspect of music composition and performance, particularly in classical and jazz music.

Types of Motion

• Motion - The direction in which the melody moves in relation to the bass line.

• Contrary motion - Moves the melody in the opposite direction of the bass.

• Oblique motion - When one voice remains on the same note and the other moves in either direction.

• Similar motion - When the bass and the soprano move in the same direction but at different intervals.

• Parallel motion - Where the soprano and bass move in the same direction and at the same interval.

Voice Leading Rules for Outer Voices

Outer Voices

• Outer voices - The highest and lowest voices in a musical texture.

  • They are usually the melody and bass lines.

• Rules for outer voices

  • Avoid large leaps between adjacent notes.

  • Avoid crossing the voices.

  • Avoid parallel fifths and octaves.

  • Avoid doubling the leading tone.

Open or Closed Positions

• Open and closed positions - The spacing between the voices in a chord.

  • In open position, the voices are spaced far apart.

  • In closed position, the voices are spaced close together.

Doubling Rules

• Double the root note

  • The root note of a chord should always be doubled. This helps to reinforce the tonality of the chord and gives it a strong foundation.

• Double the fifth

  • The fifth note of a chord can also be doubled. This can help to add brightness and clarity to the chord.

• Avoid doubling the third

  • The third note of a chord should generally be avoided when doubling. This is because it can create dissonance and clash with other notes in the chord.

• Use common sense

  • While these rules provide a good starting point, it's important to use your ears and common sense when doubling notes. If a particular doubling sounds good to you, go with it!

• Consider the instrumentation

  • Different instruments have different tonal qualities and strengths. When doubling notes, consider which instruments will work best together to create the desired sound.

Voice Leading Rules: Intervals between the Voices

• Avoid parallel perfect intervals (unison, octave, fifth, fourth) between any two voices.

• Avoid parallel diminished and augmented intervals between any two voices.

• Avoid direct fifths and octaves between any two voices.

• Avoid voice crossing, where a lower voice moves above a higher voice.

• Avoid large leaps between any two voices.

Voice Leading Rules: Spacing between the Voices

• Keep the voices within a comfortable range for the singers or instruments.

• Avoid overlapping of voices, where one voice covers up another.

• Avoid large gaps between any two voices.

• Keep the voices balanced, with no one voice dominating the others.

• Use spacing to create a sense of tension or release in the music.

Harmonic Progression, Functional Harmony, and Cadences

Harmonic Progression

• Harmonic progression - A series of chords played in a specific order

• Each chord is related to the key of the piece

• Progressions can be simple or complex

• Common progressions include I-IV-V and ii-V-I

Harmonic Rhythm

• Harmonic rhythm - The rate at which chords change in a piece of music

• Can be fast or slow

• A fast harmonic rhythm creates a sense of tension and excitement

• A slow harmonic rhythm creates a sense of calm and stability

• Can be used to create contrast within a piece of music

Cadences

• Cadence - The harmonic, melodic, and rhythmic conclusion to a phrase. It helps to establish the tonal center.

  • They end with only three chords: I (i), vi (VI), or V (v).

• Authentic cadence - The most common phrase-ending chord progression that uses the dominant chord to set up the tension and the tonic for the release.

  • Perfect Authentic (PAC) - Concluding cadence that requires both dominant and tonic chords to be in root position.

    • Authentic refers to the harmonic process of V-I.

    • The tonic chord must double the root of the chord in the soprano.

  • Imperfect Authentic (IAC) - Weaker authentic cadence that has either chord inverted, or has a chord member other than the root in the soprano of the tonic chord.

• Plagal Cadence (PC) - Weaker progression using the subdominant to tonic to provide the resting point.

  • Often called “Amen cadence”.

• Deceptive cadence (DC) - Ending progression where the dominant chord is unexpectedly resolved to the submediant instead of the tonic.

• Half Cadence (HC) - Unresolved tension used especially in the middle of a melody.

  • Ends on the dominant.

  • Phrygian Half Cadence (PHC) - Occurs in a harmonic minor. The dominant chord is preceded by the minor subdominant in first inversion and the descending bass line is approached from above by a half step.

The Chordal Seventh

• Chordal seventh - A seventh note added to a chord, creating a four-note chord.

  • It is also known as the seventh chord.

• The chordal seventh can be added to any chord, including major, minor, diminished, and augmented chords.

• The chordal seventh is usually written as a superscript "7" after the chord symbol.

Voice Leading with Chordal Seventh

• Voice leading - The art of moving from one chord to another in a smooth and melodic way.

• The chordal seventh should resolve in a melodic way, usually by moving down a half step to the third of the next chord.

• The other notes in the chord should also move in a smooth and logical way, avoiding large leaps or awkward voice leading.

Tips to Write the Voice Leading FRQs

• Start with a clear understanding of the chord progression and the key.

• Use common chord progressions and cadences to create a sense of familiarity and structure.

• Pay attention to the melody and ensure that it flows smoothly from one chord to the next.

• Use chordal sevenths to add interest and complexity to the harmony, but be careful not to overuse them or create awkward voice leading.

Voice Leading with Seventh Chords

• The seventh note should resolve in a melodic way, usually by moving down a half step to the third of the next chord.

• The other notes in the chord should also move in a smooth and logical way, avoiding large leaps or awkward voice leading.

• Seventh chords can be used to create tension and release, adding interest and complexity to the harmony.

Unit 5: Harmony and Voice Leading II: Chord Progressions and Predominant Function

Adding Predominant Function IV (iv) and ii (ii0) to a Melodic Phrase

Predominant Function

• Predominant function - A chord or group of chords that lead to the dominant chord in a musical composition.

  • It is also known as the "pre-dominant" function because it prepares the listener for the dominant chord.

• The predominant function is achieved through the use of chords that are harmonically related to the dominant chord, such as the subdominant and supertonic chords.

Subdominant Chord

• Subdominant chord - The chord built on the fourth scale degree of a major or minor key.

  • In a major key, the subdominant chord is usually a major chord, while in a minor key, it is usually a minor chord.

• It is often used to create tension and release in a composition.

• It is also commonly used in chord progressions that lead to the dominant chord, such as the ii-V-I progression.

Supertonic Chord

• Supertonic chord - The chord built on the second scale degree of a major or minor key.

  • In a major key, the supertonic chord is usually a minor chord, while in a minor key, it is usually a diminished chord.

• Used in chord progressions that lead to the dominant chord, such as the ii-V-I progression.

• It can also be used to create tension and release in a composition, especially when it is used in combination with the subdominant chord.

Voice Leading from the Predominant to the V7 Chord

• Predominant chords - Chords that typically come before the dominant chord in a progression. They include chords such as ii, IV, and ii6.

• When moving from a predominant chord to a V7 chord, there are a few guidelines to follow for good voice leading:

  • The leading tone (7th scale degree) should resolve up to the tonic (1st scale degree) of the V7 chord.

  • The 5th of the predominant chord should move down to the 3rd of the V7 chord.

  • The other voices (3rd and root) can move to the nearest chord tone of the V7 chord.

• Example:

  • ii6 (F A D) to V7 (G B D F)

  • A resolves up to B

  • D moves down to B

  • F can stay the same or move down to E

The vi (VI) Chord

Submediant as a Tonic Expansion and Weak Predominant Chord

• Submediant - The sixth degree of the scale.

  • It can be used as a tonic expansion, meaning it can be used to prolong the tonic chord by using the submediant chord (vi) as a substitute for the tonic chord (I).

    • This creates a sense of stability and prolongs the tonic harmony.

• Submediant can also be used as a weak predominant chord meaning it can be used to lead to the dominant chord (V).

• The submediant chord (vi) can be followed by the dominant chord (V) to create a sense of tension and resolution.

Deceptive Cadences

• Deceptive cadence - A chord progression that creates a sense of resolution but ends on a chord other than the expected tonic chord.

• Most common deceptive cadence - V-vi progression.

• This creates a sense of surprise and can be used to create a sense of tension and release in music.

Contextual Analysis

• Contextual analysis - The process of analyzing a piece of music in its entirety, taking into account its historical, cultural, and social context.

  • This involves analyzing the melody, harmony, rhythm, and form of the music, as well as the lyrics (if applicable).

Predominant Seventh Chords

Subdominant Triad

• Subdominant triad - Built on the fourth scale degree of a major scale.

• Used as a chord of tension and release, leading to the dominant chord.

  • In the key of C major, the subdominant triad is an F major chord (F-A-C).

Supertonic Triad

• Supertonic triad - Built on the second scale degree of a major scale.

  • Used as a chord of resolution, leading to the tonic chord.

  • It can also be used in minor keys, where it is built on the raised second scale degree (e.g. E-F#-G# in A minor).

• In the key of C major, the supertonic triad is a D minor chord (D-F-A).

The iii (III) Chord

The Mediant

• Mediant - The third degree of a diatonic scale.

• Located halfway between the tonic and dominant degrees.

• In a major scale, the mediant is a minor third above the tonic, while in a minor scale, it is a major third above the tonic.

Mediant as a Weak Predominant

• When it functions as a weak predominant chord, it can lead to the dominant or subdominant chords.

  • In this role, the mediant chord is used in a deceptive cadence, where it is substituted for the expected dominant chord.

Mediant as a Dominant Chord

• In some cases, it can also function as a dominant chord.

• This is common in minor keys, where the mediant chord is often used to lead to the subdominant or tonic chords.

  • Here, the mediant chord is often used in a minor plagal cadence, where it is substituted for the expected subdominant chord.

Mediant in Minor Keys

• In minor keys, the mediant chord is often used to create a sense of harmonic ambiguity because the mediant chord can be either major or minor, depending on whether the scale is natural or harmonic minor.

  • In natural minor, it is minor.

  • In harmonic minor, it is major.

  • This ambiguity can be used to create tension and interest in the music.

• Modulation - The process of moving from one tonal center to another, with or without changing the key signature.

  • Usually occurs to closely related keys because they have common chords between them.

  • Occurs within a phrase by using a chord common to both the old and new key or by changing tonal centers directly as a new phrase or section begins.

• Tonicization - When we have a region of a new key or experience a temporary sense of a new tonic by the occurrence of one or two non-diatonic chords.

• The difference between modulation and tonicization is the occurrence of a convincing cadence and significant time in the new key.

• Common modulations:

  • From major to relative minor (the submediant) is one of the most common ones.

  • Modulation to the dominant

  • Modulation to the subdominant

  • Modulation from major to parallel minor

Cadential 6/4 Chords

6/4 Chord Function

• 6/4 chord - A chord that has its fifth replaced with a fourth, resulting in the intervals of a root, fourth, and sixth. It is also known as an "inverted triad" or "second inversion triad".

• The 6/4 chord has several functions in music, including:

  • Pedal 6/4 chords - Used as a harmonic pedal point, where the bass note remains the same while the upper voices move around it.

  • Passing 6/4 chords - Used to connect two chords that are a third apart, often in a stepwise motion.

  • Arpeggiating 6/4 chords - Used to create a broken chord effect, where the notes of the chord are played one at a time.

  • Cadential 6/4 chords - Used to create a sense of resolution and finality, often leading to a cadence.

Cadential 6/4 Chords

• Cadential 6/4 chord - Functions as a dominant chord and resolves to a tonic chord. It is often used in cadences.

• The cadential 6/4 chord is typically used in the following way:

  • The chord is preceded by a dominant chord (V).

  • The bass note of the 6/4 chord is the same as the root of the dominant chord.

  • The upper voices move in contrary motion to the bass, resolving to the tonic chord (I).

Pedal 6/4 Chords

• Pedal 6/4 chord - Functions as a harmonic pedal point. The bass note remains the same while the upper voices move around it.

  • Often used to create tension and release, as the upper voices move away from and back to the pedal note.

Passing 6/4 Chords

• Passing 6/4 chord - Used to connect two chords that are a third apart, often in a stepwise motion.

  • Used to create a smooth harmonic progression, as they provide a smooth transition between two chords.

Arpeggiating 6/4 Chords

• Arpeggiating 6/4 chord - Chord in which the notes are played one at a time in a specific order, rather than all at once.

  • Used to create a sense of tension or anticipation, and is commonly found in classical and baroque music.

Unit 6: Harmony and Voice Leading III: Embellishments, Motives, and Melodic Devices

Embellishing Tones: Identifying Passing Tones and Neighbor Tones

Embellishments in Music

• Embellishments - Musical ornaments that add interest and variety to a melody.

  • Used to decorate a melody, making it more expressive and interesting.

• Common embellishments

  • Trills - Rapid alternation between two adjacent notes. It is indicated by a wavy line above or below the note.

  • Turns - Quick sequence of four notes that are played in a specific order. It is indicated by a small curve with a vertical line through it.

  • Mordents - Mordent is a rapid alternation between a note and the note above or below it. It is indicated by a short squiggle line above or below the note.

  • Grace notes - Quick, ornamental notes that are played before a main note. They are indicated by a small note with a diagonal line through the stem.

  • Appoggiaturas - Type of grace note that is played on the beat, taking up half the value of the main note. It is indicated by a small note with a line through the stem.

  • Acciaccaturas - Type of grace note that is played very quickly, just before the main note. It is indicated by a small note with a diagonal line through the stem.

Passing Tones

• Passing tones - Non-chord tones that connect two chord tones by stepwise motion. They are used to create smooth melodic lines and add interest to a melody.

Unaccented Passing Tones

• Unaccented passing tones - Passing tones that occur on a weak beat of the measure. They are often used to create a sense of motion and flow in a melody.

Accented Passing Tones

• Accented passing tones - Passing tones that occur on a strong beat of the measure. They are used to create a sense of tension and release in a melody.

Chromatic Passing Tones

• Chromatic passing tones - Passing tones that involve chromatic alteration. They are used to create a sense of tension and dissonance in a melody.

Neighbor Tones

• Neighbor tones - Non-chord tones that are a step above or below a chord tone and then return to the original chord tone. They are used to create a sense of tension and release in a melody.

Upper Neighbor Tone

• Upper neighbor tones - Neighbor tones that are a step above the original chord tone. Used to create a sense of tension and dissonance in a melody.

Lower Neighbor Tone

• Lower neighbor tones - Neighbor tones that are a step below the original chord tone. They are often used to create a sense of resolution and stability in a melody.

Preparation and Resolution

• Preparation and resolution - The way in which non-chord tones are approached and resolved. Proper preparation and resolution can create a sense of tension and release in a melody.

Ornamentation

• Ornamentation - The use of non-chord tones to embellish a melody. It is often used to add interest and complexity to a melody.

Embellishing Tones: Writing Passing Tones and Neighbor Tones

Writing Passing Tones and Neighbor Tones

• Use passing tones and neighbor tones to create interest and variety in your melodic lines.

• Be careful not to overuse passing tones and neighbor tones, as they can become predictable and lose their impact.

• Consider the harmonic context when choosing passing tones and neighbor tones. Make sure they fit with the underlying chord progression.

• Experiment with different rhythms and note durations to create different effects with passing tones and neighbor tones.

Embellishing Tones: Identifying Anticipations, Escape Tones, Appoggiaturas, and Pedal Points

Anticipation Tones

• Anticipation tones - A note that is played before the chord changes to create tension and anticipation.

  • Usually a non-chord tone that resolves to a chord tone on the next beat.

Escape Tones

• Escape tones - A note that is played on a weak beat and resolves to a chord tone on a strong beat.

  • Can be an upper or lower escape tone depending on whether it is above or below the chord tone.

  Upper Escape Tone

  • Upper escape tone - Type of musical ornamentation that is used to create tension and release in a melody.

  • It is a note that is higher than the melody note that precedes it, and it is usually played quickly and then resolved back to the melody note.

  Lower Escape Tone

  • Lower escape tone - Type of musical ornamentation that is used to create tension and release in a melody.

  • It is a note that is lower than the melody note that precedes it, and it is usually played quickly and then resolved back to the melody note.

Appoggiaturas

• Appoggiaturas - A type of embellishment where a non-chord tone is played on the beat and resolves to a chord tone.

Dissonant Appoggiatura

• Dissonant appoggiatura - Appoggiatura that creates tension because it clashes with the main note.

  • Dissonant appoggiaturas are often used in music to create a sense of drama or conflict.

Consonant Appoggiaturas

• Consonant appoggiatura - Appoggiatura that does not create tension because it does not clash with the main note.

• Consonant appoggiaturas are often used in music to add ornamentation or embellishment to a melody.

• Consonant appoggiaturas are sometimes referred to as "grace notes" because they add a graceful touch to a melody.

Pedal Points

• Pedal points - A sustained note played against changing harmonies.

  • Usually played in the bass and creates a sense of stability and tension.

Embellishing Tones: Identifying and Writing Suspensions; Identifying Retardations

Suspension

• Suspension - Type of non-chord tone that occurs when a note from a chord is held over into the next chord, creating a dissonance that resolves downward by step.

  • The suspended note is usually a chord tone that is held over from the previous chord, creating a dissonance with the new chord.

  • The resolution of the suspension creates a feeling of release and resolution.

Retardation

• Retardation - Type of non-chord tone that occurs when a note from a chord is held over into the next chord, creating a dissonance that resolves upward by step.

  • The retardation is the opposite of a suspension, in that it creates a dissonance that resolves upward instead of downward.

  • The resolution of the retardation creates a feeling of tension and release.

4-3 Suspensions

• 4-3 suspension - Type of suspension where the suspended note is a fourth above the bass and resolves down by step to a third above the bass.

  • The 4-3 suspension is one of the most common types of suspensions in tonal music.

  • The resolution of the 4-3 suspension creates a feeling of resolution and closure.

Chains of Suspensions

• Chain of suspensions - A series of suspensions that occur one after the other, creating a sense of tension and release.

  • Used in slow movements of sonatas and other instrumental works to create a sense of emotional intensity.

Rearticulated Suspensions

• Rearticulated suspension - Type of suspension where the suspended note is repeated before resolving.

  • The repetition of the suspended note creates a sense of tension and prolongs the resolution of the suspension.

Motive and Motivic Transformations

• Motive - Short melodic or rhythmic idea that is repeated and developed throughout a piece of music. It is the smallest identifiable musical idea that can be used to create a larger musical structure.

• Motivic transformation - The process of altering a motive to create a new musical idea.

Types of motivic transformations

• Transposed motives - The same motive played in a different key. This can be either an exact transposition or a chromatic transposition.

  • Exact transposed motives - The same motive played in a different key, but with no alteration to the intervals between the notes.

  • Chromatic transposed motives - The same motive played in a different key, but with some alteration to the intervals between the notes.

• Motive inversion - When a motive is played upside down, so that the intervals between the notes are reversed.

• Retrograde - When a motive is played backwards, so that the last note becomes the first note, and so on.

• Extended motive - When a motive is repeated and extended beyond its original length.

• Truncated motive - When a motive is shortened by removing some of its notes.

• Fragmented motive - When a motive is broken up into smaller pieces and used in different parts of the music.

• Motivic augmentation - When a motive is played at a slower tempo or with longer note values.

• Motivic diminution - When a motive is played at a faster tempo or with shorter note values.

Melodic Sequences

• Melodic sequencing - Refers to the repetition of a pattern of notes in a melody.

  • It is a technique used in music composition to create a sense of unity and coherence in a piece of music.

  • Sequences can be ascending or descending and can be transposed to different levels.

Sequences

• Sequence - A pattern of notes that is repeated at different pitch levels. It can be a short or long pattern and can be used to create a sense of tension and release in a melody.

Ascending Sequence

• Ascending sequence - Pattern of notes that moves upward in pitch. It can be used to create a sense of excitement and anticipation in a melody.

Descending Sequence

• Descending sequence - Pattern of notes that moves downward in pitch. It can be used to create a sense of relaxation and resolution in a melody.

Melodic Sequences

Diatonic Melodic Sequences

• Diatonic melodic sequences - They use only the notes of a particular key. They can be used to create a sense of stability and familiarity in a melody.

Chromatic Melodic Sequences

• Chromatic melodic sequences - They use all twelve notes of the chromatic scale. They can be used to create a sense of tension and dissonance in a melody.

Functions of Melodic Sequences in Music

Melodic sequences can serve several functions in music, including:

• Creating a sense of unity and coherence in a piece of music

• Providing a sense of tension and release in a melody

• Creating a sense of excitement and anticipation in a melody

• Creating a sense of relaxation and resolution in a melody

• Adding complexity and interest to a melody

Harmonic Sequences

Harmonic Sequences

• Harmonic sequences - A series of chords that follow a pattern of intervals.

  • Descending harmonic sequences - Chords move down by a certain interval.

    • Commonly used in sad or melancholic music.

  • Ascending harmonic sequences - Chords move up by a certain interval.

    • Commonly used in uplifting or triumphant music.

• Harmonic progression - A sequence of musical chords that follow a specific pattern.

• Depending on the direction of the progression, it can be characterized as monte, fonte, or ponte.

  • Monte - The chords move upwards in pitch creating a sense of tension and anticipation.

  • Fonte - The chords move downwards in pitch creating a sense of release and relaxation, as the progression resolves at a lower pitch.

  • Ponte - The chords neither ascend nor descend, but instead move in a circular or meandering pattern creating a sense of ambiguity and unpredictability.

• Monte creates tension, fonte creates release, and ponte creates ambiguity.

Minuets

• Minuet - A three-part musical form that is commonly used in music compositions. It is represented by the letters ABA, where the A section is followed by a contrasting B section, and then returns to the A section.

Structure of Minuets

The A section is usually the main theme of the piece and is repeated at the end of the composition. The B section is usually in a contrasting key, tempo, or melody, and provides a break from the repetition of the A section.

The structure of ternary form can be represented as follows:

• A (theme 1)

• B (contrasting theme)

• A (theme 1 repeated)

Full Texture Sequences

• Full texture sequence - A sequence where all voices move in the same rhythm and direction.

• Linear intervallic pattern sequence - A sequence where the intervals between the notes in each voice follow a pattern.

Fifths

• Descending fifths progression - A sequence where chords move down by a fifth.

• Ascending fifths sequence - A sequence where chords move up by a fifth.

• Descending thirds sequence - A sequence where chords move down by a third.

Ascending

• Ascending seconds sequence - A sequence where chords move up by a second.

• Ascending parallel 6/5 chords - A type of chord progression commonly used in classical music.

  • They consist of two chords, each with a 6th and 5th interval between the lowest and highest notes.

• The chords can be major or minor, depending on the key and the notes used.

• Found in the middle or end of a musical phrase, and can be used to lead into a cadence or resolution.

Pachelbel Sequences

• Pachelbel sequence - A sequence that uses the chords I, V, vi, iii, IV, I, IV, V.

• These sequences are characterized by a repeating pattern of chords that are played in a specific order.

Structure of Pachelbel Sequences

• First chord progression - Establishes the key and sets the tone for the sequence.

• Second chord progression - Variation of the first and typically involves a change in the melody or harmony.

• Final chord progression - Resolves the sequence and brings it to a close.

Unit 7: Harmony and Voice Leading IV: Secondary Function

Tonicization through Secondary Dominant Chords

• Secondary key - Key that is not the primary key of a piece of music but is used temporarily to create a sense of tension or contrast.

• Temporary tonic - The note that becomes the new tonal center when a secondary key is used.

Closely Related Keys

• Closely related keys - Keys that share many of the same notes as the primary key.

• The most closely related keys are the ones that differ by only one accidental.

• They are usually adjacent to the original key on the circle of fifths.

• Closely related keys to a major key

  • Its relative minor

  • The keys a fifth above and a fifth below

  • The parallel minor

• Closely related keys to a minor key

  • Its relative major

  • The keys a fifth above and a fifth below

  • The parallel major

Secondary Dominants

• Secondary dominant - Dominant chord that is not in the primary key but is used to tonicize a chord in a secondary key.

• It’s usually a major chord that is a fifth above the chord being tonicized.

Suffixes and Prefixes

• Suffixes and prefixes are added to chord symbols to indicate their function in a progression.

• The most common suffixes are "7" and "maj7", which indicate a dominant seventh chord and a major seventh chord, respectively.

• The most common prefixes are "I" and "V", which indicate the tonic and dominant chords, respectively.

Part Writing of Secondary Dominant Chords

• Secondary dominant - A chord that functions as the dominant of a chord other than the tonic. It is usually a major chord built on the fifth degree of the target chord.

• Most common secondary dominants

  • V/V (the dominant of the dominant)

  • V/ii (the dominant of the supertonic)

  • V/IV (the dominant of the subdominant)

Part Writing Secondary Dominants

• When part writing secondary dominants, it is important to follow the rules of voice leading to ensure smooth and effective harmonic progressions.

• The leading tone of the secondary dominant should resolve to the tonic of the chord it is leading to.

• The seventh of the secondary dominant should resolve down by step to the third of the chord it is leading to.

• The root of the secondary dominant should move up by step to the third of the chord it is leading to, unless it creates parallel fifths or octaves.

• In four-part writing, the fifth of the secondary dominant can be omitted if necessary to avoid voice leading errors.

Regular, Irregular, and Deceptive Resolution

Regular Resolution

• Regular resolution - A type of resolution in which the leading tone of a chord resolves upwards to the tonic.

• This resolution creates a sense of stability and finality in the music.

Irregular Resolution

• Irregular resolution - A type of resolution in which the leading tone of a chord resolves downwards to a note other than the tonic.

• This type of resolution creates a sense of tension and instability in the music.

Deceptive Resolution

• Deceptive resolution - A type of resolution in which the leading tone of a chord resolves to a chord other than the expected tonic.

• This type of resolution creates a sense of surprise and unpredictability in the music.

Tonicization through Secondary Leading Tone Chords

Tonicization through Secondary Leading Tone Chords

• Secondary leading tone chords are notated with a slash followed by the chord name of the key being borrowed from.

  • For example, C7/F indicates a C7 chord with an F in the bass, which is borrowed from the key of F major.

Part Writing of Secondary Leading Tone Chords

• The leading tone of the secondary key should resolve to the tonic of the original key.

• The other notes of the secondary leading tone chord should resolve to notes in the target chord.

• The bass note of the secondary leading tone chord should move by a step to the root of the target chord.

• Avoid parallel fifths and octaves between the secondary leading tone chord and the target chord.

Tonicizing Deceptive Motion

• Deceptive motion - A harmonic motion that leads the listener to expect a certain chord, but instead, a different chord is played.

• Tonicizing deceptive motion - A technique where a deceptive cadence is used to establish a new key.

  • The new key is usually the relative major or minor of the original key.

• By tonicizing the A minor chord, the composer can establish the key of A minor within the composition.

Unit 8: Modes and Form

Modes

• Ionian mode - Same pattern as the major scale

• Aeolian mode - Same pattern as the natural minor scale

  

• Phrygian, Aeolian, and Dorian are minor modes.

  • Dorian is similar to Aeolian with a raised 6th scale degree.

  • Phrygian is similar to Aeolian with a lowered 2nd scale degree.

  • Dorian adds one sharp and Phrygian adds one flat.

• Lydian, Mixolydian, and Ionian are major modes.

  • Lydian is similar to Ionian with a raised 4th scale degree.

  • Mixolydian is similar to Ionian with a lowered 7th scale degree.

  • Lydian adds one sharp and Mixolydian adds one flat.

• Locrian is used less. It has a diminished tonic triad, so it’s not a major or minor.

Pentatonic Scale

• Pentatonic scale - Has five tones. It contains no half steps or active tones.

  • Major pentatonic - To build it, in the Circle of Fifths, start from C up to 5 consecutive pitches.

  • Relative minor pentatonic - It uses the same pitch as the C pentatonic but it starts on A.

Blues Scale

• Blues scale - A musical scale that is used in blues music and other genres that are influenced by it.

• It is a six-note scale that includes the following notes:

  • Root note

  • Flat third

  • Fourth

  • Flat fifth

  • Fifth

  • Flat seventh

Ragas

• Ragas - Melodic frameworks used in Indian classical music. They are a set of rules that govern the way a melody is constructed and performed. Ragas are based on a scale of seven notes, which are arranged in a specific order. Each raga has a unique combination of notes, which gives it a distinct character and mood.

Whole-Tone Scale

• Heptatonic scales - There are seven tones in the scale. Major and minor scales are heptatonic.

• Hexatonic scale - There are six tones in this scale. The whole-tone scale is hexatonic.

• Whole-tone scale - Each pitch is a whole step apart.

Phrase Relationships

Phrase

• Musical phrase - A group of musical ideas that form a complete musical thought.

  • A phrase can be as short as two notes or as long as several measures.

• Phrases can be related to each other in different ways.

  • A phrase can be a response to a previous phrase, or it can be a continuation of a previous phrase.

• The relationship between phrases can create tension and release, which is an important aspect of musical expression.

• Phrase chain - A series of phrases that are related to each other.

Periods

• Period - A group of phrases that form a complete musical idea.

• A period usually consists of two phrases, an antecedent phrase, and a consequent phrase.

• Antecedent phrase - The first phrase in a period.

  • It creates a sense of tension or expectation that is resolved by the consequent phrase.

• Consequent phrase - The second phrase in a period.

  • It resolves the tension created by the antecedent phrase.

Types of Periods

• Parallel periods - Two musical phrases that have the same or similar melodic and rhythmic structure.

• Contrasting periods - Two musical phrases that have different melodic and rhythmic structures.

• Modulating periods - Two musical phrases that start in one key and end in a different key.

• Asymmetrical periods - Two musical phrases that have different lengths or structures.

• Double period - Four musical phrases that are grouped into two pairs, with each pair having a similar or contrasting structure.

Common Formal Sections

• Exposition - The opening section of a musical piece that introduces the main themes and melodies, and establishes the key and tonality of the piece.

• Interlude - A short section that connects two larger sections of a piece used to provide contrast or to transition between different moods or tempos.

• Bridge - A section that connects two different parts of a song and that often provides a contrast to the verse or chorus.

• Verse - A section of a song that tells a story or conveys a message.

• Chorus - A section of a song that is repeated several times throughout the piece

• Refrain - A repeated line or phrase that occurs at the end of each verse or chorus.

• Coda - A concluding section of a musical piece that provides a sense of closure or resolution and may contain a recapitulation of earlier themes or melodies.

• Codetta - A short concluding section that follows the main coda and is used to provide a final flourish or to bring the piece to a definitive end.