Notes on Early Civilizations: Mesopotamia and Sumer
Early Civilizations and Mesopotamia
Emergence of Complex Societies and New Roles
New Jobs (Specialization): The development of complex institutions led to individuals specializing in various tasks, moving beyond basic survival roles.
Complex Institutions: Long-lasting patterns of organization within a community, such as governments and structured systems proposed by groups of people.
Class Pyramid (Social Hierarchy): Societies often developed a hierarchical structure:
Free people (various societal roles)
Slaves/Prisoners (at the bottom, often a large portion of the population)
Geography and Early Settlements
Fertile Crescent / Mesopotamia: This region, known as "the land between two rivers," was crucial for early civilizations.
Rivers: The Tigris and Euphrates rivers were vital for irrigation and fertile soil.
Fertility: The land was enriched by silt, a bed of mud left behind after river floods.
New Inventions and Technologies
Irrigation Systems: A pivotal invention allowing civilizations to flourish in diverse environments.
Purpose: A method to bring water to dry areas or regions where natural rainfall was insufficient or unreliable.
Benefit 1: Provided water for agriculture in arid lands.
Benefit 2: Protected communities from destructive flooding by controlling river waters.
Examples: Ancient China developed sophisticated irrigation, including dams, reservoirs, and water wheels. Mesopotamian farmers used human-made systems, canals, dams, reservoirs, and water wheels to divert fresh water from rivers to their fields.
Plow: New invention driven by oxen, increasing agricultural efficiency.
The Wheel and Sailboat: These inventions significantly improved transportation and trade.
The Bronze Age: A transformative period in early human history.
Definition: A period when people began extensively using bronze, an alloy, instead of just copper and stone.
Origin: Began in the city of Sumer around 3000 B.C.E.
Significance: Bronze was stronger and more durable than previous materials, leading to more advanced tools and weapons. Its production required specialized knowledge and resources, fostering expertise and possibly driving conflict (e.g., between Sumer and other armies).
Religion in Sumer
Polytheism: Sumerians believed in many gods and goddesses.
Nature Worship: These deities often represented various natural forces such (e.g., grain, wind, sun, moon, stars).
Dependence on Nature: Sumerians strongly believed their survival depended on the goodwill of these natural forces.
Thousands of Gods: People worshipped thousands of different gods, such as Ishtar (a prominent goddess).
Rituals and Worship:
Purpose: To secure divine protection in what was perceived as an unpredictable world.
Practices: Involved sacrifices, prayers, and elaborate rituals performed by priests.
Offerings: People brought offerings to temples to gain favor from the gods.
Ziggurat: A distinctive architectural feature of Sumerian cities.
Definition: A pyramid-shaped temple, often referred to as a "mountain top" due to its elevated structure.
Religious Significance: Believed to be the dwelling place of the city's major god or goddess. Every Sumerian city was dedicated to a principal deity.
Practical Implications: Priests' observations of celestial events for religious ceremonies helped in the development of calendars, astronomy, and mathematics.
Sumerian Society and Government
City-States: Sumer was composed of a dozen or so independent, self-governing city-states.
Definition: A city and its surrounding land, functioning as an independent political unit.
Protection: City walls were built for defense against enemies.
Development of Sumerian Civilization:
Led to significant cultural diffusion (the spread of cultural traits).
Monarchy: Over time, powerful leaders (monarchs) came to rule these city-states, often described as "greedy leaders."
Dynasties: These monarchical systems often developed into dynasties, a series of rulers from the same family.
Sumerian Government Structure: Around 3000 B.C.E., monarchs took over governmental control.
Role of Priests: Priests initially served as the intermediary between the people and the gods, holding significant influence.
Social Classes: Sumerian society was stratified:
Upper Class: Priests, landowners, wealthy merchants.
Middle Class: Ordinary people (farmers, artisans).
Lower Class: Slaves/prisoners.
Sumerian Trade
Resource Scarcity: Sumer conspicuously lacked important natural resources.
Trade Goods: Traded agricultural products like wool, grains, and dates for vital raw materials.
Scope: Trade networks extended both short-distance (within Mesopotamia) and long-distance (with neighboring regions).
Sumerian Writing: Cuneiform
Evolution: Writing began as pictography (pictures representing objects) and evolved into Cuneiform.
Cuneiform Characteristics: Consisted of symbols representing sounds, not just objects, making it more versatile.
Usage: Used in many texts and stories, marking the beginning of recorded history.
Scribes: Individuals who could read and write, playing a crucial role in record-keeping and administration.
The Akkadian Empire (Sargon the Great)
Conquest of Sumer: Sargon of Akkad conquered Sumer in 2334 B.C.E., establishing the first empire.
Sargon's Reign: Sargon ruled for 56 years, expanding his empire through a unified rule.
Empire's Duration: The Akkadian Empire lasted for approximately 150 years.
Administrative Policies:
Local Rulers/Customs: Sargon largely kept existing local rulers and customs in place.
Tribute/Protection: Implemented a policy where conquered territories received protection in return for taxes or tribute.
Standardization: Introduced standardized weights and measures to facilitate trade and administration.
Official Language: Akkadian became the official language of the empire.
Cultural Artifacts: Examples like votive statues demonstrate the people's beliefs and reverence, often depicting individuals paying respect. Gilgamesh is a major example of early literature from this period.