Ch 27 The Eisenhower Years

The Eisenhower Years (1952-1960)

Public Education and Civil Rights

• Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

  • Declared the doctrine of "separate but equal" in public education as unconstitutional.

  • Chief Justice Earl Warren noted that separate facilities are inherently unequal.

Image of the 1950s

• The decade often viewed as the "happy days" with a prosperous nation.

• However, it started with the Korean War and political issues like McCarthyism.

• Key social movements were led by figures such as Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr.

Eisenhower as President

• Dwight D. Eisenhower, nicknamed "Ike," became emblematic of the 1950s, similar to Franklin Roosevelt representing the 1930s.

Election of 1952

• Eisenhower brought hope of concluding the Korean War and cleaning up political scandals.

• He won the Republican nomination against Senator Robert Taft, with Richard Nixon as his running mate.

• Eisenhower used his integrity and television effectively to win elections.

Domestic Policies

Leadership Style

• Eisenhower’s approach involved delegating authority and filling his cabinet with successful corporate executives.

• Accusations of him being disengaged were countered by research showing he maintained control.

Modern Republicanism

• A fiscal conservative focused on balancing the budget and maintaining New Deal programs.

  • Extended Social Security, raised minimum wage, and consolidated welfare programs.

  • Created the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare in 1953.

Highway Act of 1956

• Authorized the construction of 42,000 miles of interstate highways; significant for both defense and economic growth.

• Created jobs, changed transport networks, and fostered suburban growth but neglected public transport needs.

Economic Indicators

• The U.S. experienced steady growth and a negligible inflation rate of 1.5% during Eisenhower's term.

• Disposable income tripled, with the highest global standard of living achieved.

Election of 1956

• Despite health issues, Eisenhower was reelected against Adlai Stevenson, again securing a large electoral victory.

Foreign Policy and the Cold War

• John Foster Dulles shaped foreign policy, advocating for aggressive actions against communism.

Brinkmanship and Massive Retaliation

• Dulles’s policy involved threatening nuclear action to deter communist aggression.

• Development of the hydrogen bomb intensified worries about mutual destruction but prevented direct U.S.-Soviet confrontations.

Decolonization

• Post-World War II decolonization saw various nations in Asia and Africa gain independence, complicating U.S.-Soviet relations.

Covert Actions

• Increased use of covert operations to influence foreign nations, including actions in Iran and Guatemala.

• Examples include the CIA interventions to support favorable regimes and undermine communism.

Key Events in Asia

Korean War Armistice

• Eisenhower’s promise to visit Korea helped bring about an armistice in 1953, maintaining division but ceasing hostilities.

Indochina and Vietnam

• French defeat at Dien Bien Phu led to Geneva Conference outcomes, splitting Vietnam at the 17th parallel, setting the stage for future conflicts.

Middle Eastern Policy

• Eisenhower sought to balance relations with oil-rich Arab states while supporting Israel.

• Suez Crisis (1956) highlighted tensions and pushed the U.S. into a leading role in the region.

Eisenhower Doctrine

• Pledged aid to Middle Eastern nations threatening communism, first applied in Lebanon in 1958.

U.S.-Soviet Relations

Diplomatic Fluctuations

• Post-Stalin era saw changes in diplomatic tone, with attempts to engage in arms reduction.

The Hungarian Revolt

• Uprising crushed by Soviet forces in 1956, illustrating the limits of U.S. willingness to intervene.

Sputnik and the Space Race

• Launching of Sputnik by the Soviets in 1957 raised concerns about U.S. technological supremacy and spurred educational reforms.

Second Berlin Crisis and U-2 Incident

• Berlin tensions resurfaced with increased demands from Khrushchev; espionage intensified after a U-2 spy plane was shot down.

Cuban Revolution

• Fidel Castro’s rise to power and subsequent nationalization of U.S. businesses led to a deterioration of U.S.-Cuban relations.

Eisenhower's Legacy

• Self-portrayed as a peacemaker, fostering a climatic peak of Cold War tensions and the rise of military influence in society.

The Civil Rights Movement

• Key Events & Figures: Jackie Robinson, NAACP's legal victories, and significant protests initiated by figures like Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr.

• Montgomery bus boycotts

• Resistance to Brown v. Board and the Montgomery Bus Boycott marked pivotal moments.

• Despite Eisenhower's signing of civil rights laws in 1957 and 1960, efforts to improve African American voting rights faced enormous obstacles.

Immigration and Social Issues

• Legislative changes affected immigration patterns and labor issues, particularly affecting Mexicans through programs like the braceros program.

Popular Culture and Social Conformity

• 1950s marked by mass consumer culture and conformity driven by television, advertising, and suburbanization.

Changes in Family Dynamics

• Women's roles were reaffirmed, although many sought careers, highlighting conflicts with traditional expectations.

Critiques of the 1950s

• Intellectual dissenters critiqued the era's emphasis on conformity and materialism, sparked by figures like the Beat Generation.

Summary of Historical Perspectives

• The 1950s viewed variably by historians; while characterized as stagnant, it set the stage for future social and political change.