Ch 27 The Eisenhower Years

The Eisenhower Years (1952-1960)

Public Education and Civil Rights

  • Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

    • Declared the doctrine of "separate but equal" in public education as unconstitutional.

    • Chief Justice Earl Warren noted that separate facilities are inherently unequal.

Image of the 1950s

  • The decade often viewed as the "happy days" with a prosperous nation.

  • However, it started with the Korean War and political issues like McCarthyism.

  • Key social movements were led by figures such as Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr.

Eisenhower as President

  • Dwight D. Eisenhower, nicknamed "Ike," became emblematic of the 1950s, similar to Franklin Roosevelt representing the 1930s.

Election of 1952

  • Eisenhower brought hope of concluding the Korean War and cleaning up political scandals.

  • He won the Republican nomination against Senator Robert Taft, with Richard Nixon as his running mate.

  • Eisenhower used his integrity and television effectively to win elections.

Domestic Policies

Leadership Style

  • Eisenhower’s approach involved delegating authority and filling his cabinet with successful corporate executives.

  • Accusations of him being disengaged were countered by research showing he maintained control.

Modern Republicanism

  • A fiscal conservative focused on balancing the budget and maintaining New Deal programs.

    • Extended Social Security, raised minimum wage, and consolidated welfare programs.

    • Created the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare in 1953.

Highway Act of 1956

  • Authorized the construction of 42,000 miles of interstate highways; significant for both defense and economic growth.

  • Created jobs, changed transport networks, and fostered suburban growth but neglected public transport needs.

Economic Indicators

  • The U.S. experienced steady growth and a negligible inflation rate of 1.5% during Eisenhower's term.

  • Disposable income tripled, with the highest global standard of living achieved.

Election of 1956

  • Despite health issues, Eisenhower was reelected against Adlai Stevenson, again securing a large electoral victory.

Foreign Policy and the Cold War

  • John Foster Dulles shaped foreign policy, advocating for aggressive actions against communism.

Brinkmanship and Massive Retaliation

  • Dulles’s policy involved threatening nuclear action to deter communist aggression.

  • Development of the hydrogen bomb intensified worries about mutual destruction but prevented direct U.S.-Soviet confrontations.

Decolonization

  • Post-World War II decolonization saw various nations in Asia and Africa gain independence, complicating U.S.-Soviet relations.

Covert Actions

  • Increased use of covert operations to influence foreign nations, including actions in Iran and Guatemala.

  • Examples include the CIA interventions to support favorable regimes and undermine communism.

Key Events in Asia

Korean War Armistice

  • Eisenhower’s promise to visit Korea helped bring about an armistice in 1953, maintaining division but ceasing hostilities.

Indochina and Vietnam

  • French defeat at Dien Bien Phu led to Geneva Conference outcomes, splitting Vietnam at the 17th parallel, setting the stage for future conflicts.

Middle Eastern Policy

  • Eisenhower sought to balance relations with oil-rich Arab states while supporting Israel.

  • Suez Crisis (1956) highlighted tensions and pushed the U.S. into a leading role in the region.

Eisenhower Doctrine

  • Pledged aid to Middle Eastern nations threatening communism, first applied in Lebanon in 1958.

U.S.-Soviet Relations

Diplomatic Fluctuations

  • Post-Stalin era saw changes in diplomatic tone, with attempts to engage in arms reduction.

The Hungarian Revolt

  • Uprising crushed by Soviet forces in 1956, illustrating the limits of U.S. willingness to intervene.

Sputnik and the Space Race

  • Launching of Sputnik by the Soviets in 1957 raised concerns about U.S. technological supremacy and spurred educational reforms.

Second Berlin Crisis and U-2 Incident

  • Berlin tensions resurfaced with increased demands from Khrushchev; espionage intensified after a U-2 spy plane was shot down.

Cuban Revolution

  • Fidel Castro’s rise to power and subsequent nationalization of U.S. businesses led to a deterioration of U.S.-Cuban relations.

Eisenhower's Legacy

  • Self-portrayed as a peacemaker, fostering a climatic peak of Cold War tensions and the rise of military influence in society.

The Civil Rights Movement

  • Key Events & Figures: Jackie Robinson, NAACP's legal victories, and significant protests initiated by figures like Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr.

  • Montgomery bus boycotts

  • Resistance to Brown v. Board and the Montgomery Bus Boycott marked pivotal moments.

  • Despite Eisenhower's signing of civil rights laws in 1957 and 1960, efforts to improve African American voting rights faced enormous obstacles.

Immigration and Social Issues

  • Legislative changes affected immigration patterns and labor issues, particularly affecting Mexicans through programs like the braceros program.

Popular Culture and Social Conformity

  • 1950s marked by mass consumer culture and conformity driven by television, advertising, and suburbanization.

Changes in Family Dynamics

  • Women's roles were reaffirmed, although many sought careers, highlighting conflicts with traditional expectations.

Critiques of the 1950s

  • Intellectual dissenters critiqued the era's emphasis on conformity and materialism, sparked by figures like the Beat Generation.

Summary of Historical Perspectives

  • The 1950s viewed variably by historians; while characterized as stagnant, it set the stage for future social and political change.