PSYCH 2C03: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCH 2C03: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
WELCOME!
DEFINING SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Definition: Social psychology is the scientific study of how people’s affect, behaviors, and cognitions are influenced by the presence, real or imagined, of at least one other person.
ABC’s of Psychology: This involves Affect (feelings), Behavior (actions), and Cognition (thoughts).
Scope: Covers a very broad range of topics that might seem like common sense; however, caution is advised as these concepts often require critical thinking.
RESEARCH METHODS
TOPIC 1: HOW RESEARCHERS RESEARCH
LECTURE OUTLINE
The scientific method
Types of claims researchers make
Main research designs
Research ethics
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Process steps:
Start with an observation or existing theory.
Generate a hypothesis based on the observation.
Formulate predictions from the hypothesis.
Design and conduct research to test predictions.
Perform statistical analysis on collected data.
Determine whether the data supports or refutes the hypothesis.
Repeat the cycle as necessary; this is known as the theory-data cycle.
GOOD TO KNOW
Point 1: In science, hypotheses and theories cannot be proven in absolute terms.
Quote by Gerhard Robbins: "When we say we believe a theory, what we really mean is that we are unable to show that the theory is wrong…"
Quote by Stephen Jay Gould: "In science, 'fact' can only mean 'confirmed to such a degree that it would be perverse to withhold provisional assent.’"
THREE TYPES OF RESEARCH CLAIMS
Frequency Claims: e.g., "28% of cat owners are introverted."
Association Claims: e.g., "The more introverted people are, the more likely they are to have a cat."
Causal Claims: e.g., "Taking care of a cat for 2 weeks causes people to become more introverted."
TWO TYPES OF VALIDITY
Internal Validity: relates to causal claims, ensuring that the research design accurately shows cause and effect.
External Validity: relates to frequency and association claims, indicating how well research findings can be generalized to other contexts.
RESEARCH DESIGN CHOICES
Maximal Internal Validity:
Methods: Lab Experiments. quasi (sometimes, it is tentative)
Maximal External Validity:
Methods: Observational Studies, Other Correlational Studies, and Field Experiments.
OBSERVATIONAL & OTHER CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
Characteristics: Generally exhibit low internal validity, meaning they cannot support causal claims, but can achieve high external validity, ensuring results are broadly applicable.
OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES
Definition: Research methods that involve observing subjects in their natural environment, usually unobtrusively.
Types:
Naturalistic observation
Participant observation
Pros & Cons: Each method comes with its strengths and weaknesses regarding data accuracy and depth of insight.
EXAMPLE OF A PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION STUDY
Study: "When Prophecy Fails" (Festinger, Riecken, & Schachter, 1957)
IV: The failure of the world-ending prophecy (expected vs. actual).
DV: Group members’ commitment to their beliefs after the prophecy failed.
Results: Despite the failed prophecy, many members increased their commitment, rationalizing the outcome to reduce cognitive dissonance.
OTHER TYPES OF CORRELATIONAL STUDY
Methods:
Surveys or questionnaires
Utilizing pre-existing data sets
INTERPRETING CORRELATIONAL DATA
Challenges:
The Directionality Problem: Uncertainty regarding which variable influences the other.
The Third Variable Problem: Missing contextual factors that might affect the observed relationship.
WHAT’S GOING ON HERE?
Discussion: It’s crucial to identify which variable is affecting which – a significant concern in research involving correlation.
Example: Ice Cream Sales ↔ Shark Attacks
Graphical Representation: Illustrates that various factors could be influencing both variables.
FULLY RANDOMIZED LAB EXPERIMENTS
Benefit: Offer high internal validity, allowing researchers to draw causal conclusions with confidence.
EXPERIMENT KEY TERMS
Dependent Variables (DV): The outcome variable measured in an experiment.
Independent Variables (IV): The variable manipulated by the researcher to observe effects on the DV.
Confounding Variables: Additional factors that may affect the results, leading to erroneous conclusions.
Random Assignment: Participants are randomly allocated to conditions to mitigate bias.
Experimental Control: Maintaining consistent conditions to isolate the IV.
Cover Story: A plausible explanation given to participants that conceals the true purpose of the study.
Confederate: An individual posing as a participant but is actually part of the research team.
EXAMPLE OF AN EXPERIMENT: DIEHL & STROEBE (1987)
Hypotheses:
Group brainstorming produces fewer ideas compared to individual brainstorming due to interruptions in group settings.
IV: Brainstorming condition (alone, group, alone with interruptions).
DV: Number and quality of non-redundant ideas produced.
Results: Individuals working alone generated more and higher-quality ideas than those in groups or interrupted conditions, due to less production blocking.
DIEHL & STROEBE (1987) RESULTS
Performance Outcome: Resulting behaviors in brainstorming conditions show statistical significance or lack thereof (n.s. represented).
Conditions Studied: Alone vs. Group vs. Interruptions.
QUASI- AND FIELD EXPERIMENTS
Causal Claims: These claims can be made but are often tentative, requiring careful interpretation.
Quasi-Experiments: Utilize subject or participant variables that cannot be randomly assigned.
Example: Brainstorming scenarios with a lack of causal clarity owing to subject circumstances.
Field Experiments: Conducted in natural settings and less controlled than lab environments, which may compromise causal inferences.
EXAMPLE OF A FIELD EXPERIMENT: MIDDLEMIST ET AL. (1976)
Research Question: Examines difficulties of urination in public restrooms vs. private facilities.
Hypothesis: Personal space invasions increase physiological arousal, inhibiting urination.
IV: Distance between men using urinals (close vs. distant).
DV: Latency to begin urination and duration of urination.
Results: Closer proximity increased latency and decreased urination duration, indicating increased arousal and discomfort.
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
Variables Illustrated: Independent Variable and Dependent Variable relationship.
Visual Representation: Illustrative graphs presented for empirical data analysis.
RESULTS
Data Analysis: Examine latency in urination across different levels of privacy.
Performance Metrics: Measured in seconds and represented graphically.
SUMMARY: RESEARCH DESIGN CHOICES
Maximal Internal Validity: Observational Studies, Lab Experiments.
Maximal External Validity: Other Correlational Studies, Quasi- and Field Experiments.
A FEW MORE THINGS TO WORRY ABOUT
Various biases to be aware of in research:
Self-Selection Bias: Participants may choose themselves into groups.
Self-Presentation Bias: Participants may alter behavior to appear favorable (Social Desirability).
Confirmation Bias: Researchers may subconsciously favor information that confirms their hypotheses.
Experimental Demand: Participants might alter their behavior due to perceived expectations from researchers.
LEARNING TIPS
Pay attention to the relevance of research discussed during lectures.
Identify the type of research design utilized in studies.
Analyze patterns in results (significance vs. non-significance).
Develop critical thinking regarding conclusions that can be drawn.
Maintain a skeptical approach towards research findings.
RESEARCH ETHICS
Considerations:
Institutional Review Board approval required.
Informed consent from participants essential.
Conduct proper debriefing following research participation.
Social Psychology's Contributions: Research ethics have been enhanced significantly through the lessons learned in this discipline.
MILGRAM'S OBEDIENCE TO AUTHORITY EXPERIMENTS
Milgram’s Obedience Experiments
IV: Commands from an authority figure to administer shocks.
DV: Participants’ willingness to administer increasingly severe shocks.
Results: Most participants obeyed authority figures, delivering shocks despite visible distress, demonstrating obedience to authority.
Key Concerns:
Issues of deception and psychological stress for participants.
Emphasis on ethical considerations in future research ( Conduct and guidelines).
Reference to associated documentaries that provide insight into research ethics.
ZIMBARDO’S STANFORD PRISON FIELD EXPERIMENT
IV: Assigned role (guard vs. prisoner).
DV: Behaviors exhibited (e.g., abusive behavior, stress signs).
Results: Guards exhibited abusive and authoritarian behaviors; prisoners showed stress and helplessness, illustrating role-induced behavioral changes.
REPLICATION CRISIS:
Overview: Failures to replicate significant scientific findings contribute to a perceived "credibility crisis" within the psychological sciences.
Investigation into Reasons and Solutions: Ongoing discussions about why these failures occur and how to mitigate them effectively.
RESEARCH METHODS SUMMARY
For any research in social psychology, consider the following critical aspects:
What design was utilized?
Assess the internal validity and extent to which causal conclusions can be made.
Evaluate external reliability and the generalizability of findings across populations, cultures, and contexts.
Consider the ethical implications of the research conducted.