Escape, Avoidance, & Punishment

1. Review the definitions of negative reinforcement, escape, and avoidance.  

Escape = performance of the behavior terminates the aversive stimulus 

Avoidance = performance of the behavior prevents the aversive stimulus from occurring 

Negative reinforcement= removing a stimulus to increase the strength of the response 

2. Why is an escape response easier to explain than an avoidance response? Contrast the two-process and one-process explanations of avoidance behavior.

   One first learns to escape from an aversive stimulus then to avoid it.

 The two process theory is the avoidance response is reinforced by the termination of the singal.

1. pavlovian Factor: signal for shock becomes aversise

2. Operant factor: termination is reinforcing

The revised one process theory: Operant factor = avoidance response is reinforced by lower rate of aversive stimulation

3. Review the definitions of positive and negative punishment and define “time-out”. Describe the two common mistakes in implementing time-out.  

Positive punishment is the presentation of an event to decrease the future strength of that response  

Negative punishment is the removal of a certain event leading to a decrease in the future strength of that response.  

Time out refers to the loss of access to positive reinforcers for a brief period of time following the occurrence of a problem behavior. Two common mistakes for this that 1. the time out setting is actually more reinforcing than the setting from which the child was removed and 2.Time outs can be too long 

4. Contrast primary and conditioned punishers. Identify three conditioned punishers that you encounter in everyday life. 

Primary punisher: event that innately punishing. E.g. = intense heat loud noise, electrical shock 

Conditioned punishers: event that has become punishing because it has in the past been associated with some other punisher. E.g 

1. Red ink or check marks next to wrong answer 

2. Ful name used by parent 

3. No (harsh voice) 

5. Note that behaviorists do not recommend the use of punishment, but that it is important to study because it can sometimes be appropriate to quickly suppress dangerous behavior. Explain problems 1-7 associated with the use of punishment. Explain why punishment is often so overused in our society (# 8). 

Problems 1-7 say that punishment often results in either unwanted behavior, generalized suppression of other behaviors, does not directly the occurrence of adaptive behavior, avoids the person who delivers the punishment, aggressive reactions and strong emotional responses. Punishment is overused in society because it often has an immediate effect in stopping unwanted behavior, but the use of punishment is often strongly reinforced.  

6. Summarize the advice (only #s 1-3, & 6) on how to effectively implement punishment (starting on p. 354).  

To effectively implement punishment is that punishment may activate an innate tendency in humans to become more sociable in an effort to restore one's relationship with others. Punishment should also be immediate rather than delayed.  

7. What is learned helplessness, and how did Seligman and Maier (1967) demonstrate it with dogs? 

Learned helplessness is the decrement in learning ability that results from repeated exposure to uncontrollable aversive events. Three dogs were exposed to different conditions (inescapable shock, escapable shock and no shock. Each dog was trying to avoid the shock by jumping over the barrier during a period of darkness.  

8. Explain the technique researchers discovered to eliminate learned helplessness once it has developed. Finally, explain how learned helplessness can be prevented by “immunizing” an animal from becoming helpless.  

The helpless animal will eventually recover its ability to escape on its own if it is repeatedly forced to escape the aversive stimulus.  

9. How is experimental neurosis related to PTSD? What is the “general rule” that describes the circumstances in which trauma symptoms are more easily induced?  

Some of the symptoms that the animals show is similar to symptoms of PTSD when they are subjected to noncontingent, unpredictable aversive stimulations. Traumatic symptoms are easily induced in animals when the aversive stimulus is delivered in an environment that the animal sees as safe or a type of appetitive event.  

10. How have behaviorists traditionally viewed multiple personalities? (“And Furthermore” Box) Explain the “direct evidence” (Kohlenberg, 1973) for a role of reinforcement, and also the successful treatment that Kohlenberg devised.   

Kohlenberg found that by manipulating the amount of reinforcers a patient received for displaying one of three alter personalities, he was able to manipulate the amount of time a particular personality was displayed. He then devised a successful treatment program that included reinforcing displays of the personality that acted normally and ignoring displays of other personalities.