Congress Oversight Function Monitors and evaluates federal agencies, programs, and policies. • Ensures laws are implemented as intended. • Uses hearings, investigations, and reports as tools. • Seats in the House of Representatives • Shall Be Apportioned among the States based on population. • Minimum of one representative per state. • 100 Senators Represent the 50 States • Each state has two senators. • Serves six-year terms with staggered elections. • Inherent/Expressed/Implied Powers • Inherent: Powers essential to a sovereign nation (e.g., immigration control). • Expressed: Specifically listed in the Constitution (e.g., taxation). • Implied: Derived from the Elastic Clause (e.g., establishing the IRS). • Commerce Clause • Grants Congress power to regulate trade among states. • Basis for significant federal authority over economic activity. • 1st Amendment • Protects freedom of speech, religion, press, assembly, and petition. • Ensures separation of church and state. • Impeachment Rules • House of Representatives has the sole power to impeach. • Senate holds the trial and votes on conviction. • Requires a two-thirds majority in the Senate to convict. • Electoral College • Mechanism for electing the President and Vice President. • States allocate electors based on congressional representation. • Majority of electoral votes (270) needed to win. • Parliamentary Governments • Executive derives authority from the legislature. • Prime Minister is usually the leader of the majority party (less conflicts) • Federal Government • National government with powers divided among legislative, executive, and judicial branches. • Balances power between federal and state governments (federalism). • Legislative Power • Authority to make laws. • Vested in Congress (House of Representatives and Senate).

Outline of Government Structure and Concepts

I. Executive Power

• Authority to enforce laws

• Vested in the President and administrative agencies

II. Judicial Power

• Authority to interpret laws and resolve disputes

• Vested in federal courts, including the Supreme Court

III. United States as a Representative Democracy

• Citizens elect officials to make decisions on their behalf

• Accountability emphasized through regular elections

IV. Absolute Freedom

• Limited by laws to ensure public safety and order

• Otherwise leads to anarchy

V. The Constitution

• Provides framework for federal authority

• Delegates and limits government powers

VI. The Bill of Rights

• First ten amendments to the Constitution

• Protects individual freedoms and limits government power

VII. Federalism

• Division of power between national and state governments

• Promotes local governance while maintaining national unity

VIII. Bicameral Legislature

• Comprises two chambers: House of Representatives and Senate

• Balances representation by population and state equality

IX. Popular Sovereignty

• Principle that government derives its power from the people

• Reflected in voting and civic participation

X. Checks and Balances

• Prevents any branch from becoming too powerful

• Each branch has oversight and influence over the others

XI. Tariffs

• Taxes on foreign imports

• Used to protect domestic industries or generate revenue

• Regulated by Congress

XII. Extradition Clause

• Requires states to return fugitives to the state of the crime

XIII. Preamble of the Constitution

• States purposes and guiding principles of the document

• Highlights goals like justice, defense, and liberty

XIV. The 26th Amendment

• Lowered voting age to 18

• Ratified in response to the Vietnam War, emphasizing "old enough to fight, old enough to vote"

XV. Amendments

• Changes or additions to the Constitution

• Requires proposal by Congress or a convention, and ratification by states

XVI. Supreme Court

• Consists of nine justices

• Nominated by the President, confirmed by the Senate

• Judicial review established by Marbury v. Madison

XVII. Naturalization

• Process for non-citizens to become U.S. citizens

• Requirements include residency, language proficiency, and citizenship test

XVIII. Primary Role of Congress

• Primary function: create and pass legislation

• Elastic Clause (Necessary and Proper Clause) grants Congress flexibility

XIX. Congress and Impeachment

• House impeaches; Senate tries and decides on removal

• Two Houses differ in size, term length, and powers

XX. Largest Branch of Federal Government

• Executive branch, in terms of personnel and functions

XXI. The "Rule of Four"

• Supreme Court practice to hear a case if four justices agree

XXII. Precedent

• Judicial decisions that guide future cases

• Ensures consistency and predictability in law