AOS 1
The World Bank has classified countries according to their GNI per capita.
Gross National Income (GNI) per capita: The total income generated by a country in 12 months, divided by its population
As the World Bank has classified countries according to their average income there are large variations within each country
There are however common characteristics that can be seen in each of these countries
GNI per capita countries in the group n.o countries in this group | |||
High income | $12,236 or more | Australia, Canada, Switzerland, United Kingdom | 81 |
Upper middle income | $3956 - $12,235 | China, Brazil, Turkey, Romania | 56 |
Lower middle income | $1,006 - $3955 | Cambodia, Indonesia, Kenya, Bangladesh | 47 |
Low income | $1,005 or less | Ethiopia, Chad, Burundi, Afghanistan | 34 |
WATER AND SANITATION
safe water and sanitation are characteristics are characteristics of high income and many middle income countries
low income countries tend to lack access
access is responsible for a large proportion of the variation between the 3 groups
FOOD SECURITY
food security: reliable access to sufficient quality, affordable, nutritious and culturally appropriate food
people in high income countries generally have access to quality food supply
those in low income countries tend to lack access
HOUSING
many people in low and middle income countries often lack access to adequate housing.
with:
poor ventilation
lack of heating and cooling
poor resistance to infestation of disease-carrying organisms such as insects
lack of cooking facilities and running water
poor protection from the elements.
urban slums are also a common feature of cities compared to high-income countries.
INFRASTRUCTURE
responsible for many differences between high, middle and low income countries.
High-income countries usually have:
adequate roads
piped water
sewerage systems
electricity grids
telecommunication systems
People living in low and middle income countries often lack access to such facilities
especially in rural and remote areas and urban slums.
LEVELS OF CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS
High income countries have highter CO2 emissions
Carbon dioxide emissions have been linked to climate change and the associated effects on sea levels and changing weather patterns.
Low and middle income countries are often the most affected by climate change as they lack the economic resources to effectively deal with the associated impacts.
HEALTHCARE
High income countries generally have public health systems.
People are usually able to access basic healthcare when they need it regardless of their ability to pay.
Those in low and middle income countries often lack access to suitable healthcare, which affects the level of health and wellbeing they experience
EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT LEVELS
High rates of education and employment are characteristic of most high income countries.
People often have choices about the level of education and the type of career they pursue.
Many low income countries do not have a developed education system
families in low income countries usually have to pay for their children to attend school.
TECHNOLOGY
Access to technology: includes access to communication systems, the internet and medical technologies.
can be used to assist countries in developing their economies, building trade opportunities, furthering education and treating ill-health.
more accessable in high income countries
Low income countries often lack access to technology,
impacts on the ability of citizens to gain an education and earn an income.
LEGAL SYSTEMS
Most high income countries experience strong and stable political and legal systems
A strong legal system is important for ensuring that human rights, such as the right to education and the right to live safely, are upheld
especially with the increased risk of civil conflict, which is also more common in low income countries.
Many low income countries lack a strong legal system
SOCIAL SECURITY SYSTEMS
in most high income countries Individuals who are unemployed, or unable to work due to illness or disability, are provided with financial support.
Low and middle income countries often do not have the means to provide assistance to those who are unemployed or unable to work
driven further into poverty
GENDER EQUALITY
High income countries often experience gender equality.
both males and females have opportunities and choices with regards to education, employment, community participation and recreation
In many low income countries, however, females do not have the same opportunities as males in society.
Females may have limited opportunities for education and often work in fields tending crops and/or spend significant time collecting water and preparing meals.
BIRTH RATES AND POPULATION GROWTH
Low birth rates and slow rates of population growth are characteristics of many high income countries
due to:
Access to contraception, choice with regards to family planning, career choices and education
High birth rates in many low and middle income countries can limit the ability of parents to care for all of their children
provide them with the resources required to live a healthy life
INCOME
high income countries have high average incomes with almost 0% of people living in extreme poverty
Extreme poverty: measured as living on less than $1.90USD a day
TRADE OPPORTUNITIES
High income countries generally have various trading opportunities, particularly internationally.
High income countries tend to have well developed infrastructure
including roads, ports and airports
to support efficient, effective and streamlined trading processes
RANGE OF INDUSTRIES
High income countries generally have a wide range of industries to allow their citizens to earn a sufficient income
Industries common to high income countries:
mining
manufacturing
healthcare
education
Agriculture is also a common industry in high income countries
unlike low income countries, there is not such a significant reliance on this industry
DEBT LEVELS
High income countries generally have lower levels of international debt
Higher average incomes, a greater range of industries and international trade opportunities allow for greater income and tax generation
less reliance on international loans
When low income countries require international loans, they often require large amounts of interest to be repaid.
High interest loan repayments make it almost impossible for low income countries to break the poverty cycle.
SIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES | |
Life expectancy and HALE has increased over time in most countries | The lower the income of the country, the lower the life expectancy |
Females have a higher life expectancy than males |
SIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES | |
Under 5 mortality rate improved in most countries around the world | Lower income countries experience higher rates of mortality and morbidity |
Non-communicable diseases account for the highest percentage of deaths | Maternal mortality significantly higher in low income countries |
SIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES | |
The rate of YLD generally increases with life expectancy | YLL rates for most causes are higher in low and middle income countries |
Total YLL by non-communicable diseases is much higher in high income countries |
safe water: water that is not contaminated with disease-causing pathogens such as bacteria and viruses and chemicals such as lead and mercury
safe water required for:
consumption
food preparation and cooking
washing and hygiene
agriculture and production
How does safe water affect HS and BOD?
Diarrhoea can be caused by drinking unsafe water, which can negatively impact YLD. The body dehydrates because of diarrhoea however more unsafe water needs to be consumed because of thirst. This causes more deadly bacteria to be consumed and can lead to other conditions such as cholera which can lead to premature death, particularly in children. Therefore, increasing the Under 5 Mortality Rate.
typhoid, cholera, malaria, diarrhoea
Sanitation: generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of human urine and faeces
can also refer to the maintenance of hygienic conditions through services such as garbage disposal and wastewater disposal
adequate sanitation requires flushing a toilet or covered latrine and the hygienic removal or containment of the waste products.
Globally 2.5 billion, or one in three, people lack access to basic sanitation.
Almost one billion of these people defecate in the open, for example in street gutters, behind bushes or into open bodies of water.
This waste often seeps into water sources and contaminates the water that people will eventually consume.
Explain how the use of sanitation contributes to differences in HS and BOD?
If there is adequate sanitation ghis might mean there is sewerage disposal and human wast isn’t flowing into the streets. This reduces the risk of contracting and infectious disease such as diarrhoea from contaminated sewage water, contributing to lower morbidity rates. If there is adequate santiation, facilities, this might mean that menstruating girls dont have to walk a long, unsafe distance to find an adequate toilet. This reduces the risk of them getting kidnapped and murdered by violent gangs, contributing to a lower YLL rate.
Poverty: deprivation which often stems from lack of income but presents as a lack of material resources such as food, shelter, clean water and healthcare
deprivation of intangible resources such as social inclusion, opportunities for education and decision making.
The GNI of a country does not determine how the wealth is distributed.
In many countries, it is common for a few people to control most of the wealth, leaving a majority of the country with living standards well below
means that low and middle income countries experience the concerns associated with poverty
such as:
high rates of communicable diseases
higher rates of child and adult mortality
they are also likely to experience issues and diseases associated with wealth which are also common in high income countries
such as:
obesity
diabetes
cardiovascular disease
Experiencing issues and diseases associated with both poverty and wealth in one country is referred to as a double burden of disease.
poverty can prevent access to:
Government services (includes social services)
infrustructure
nutritious food
clean water and sanitation
education
healthcare
adequate housing
The cycle of poverty is difficult to break without being educated
often need money for education
How does poverty affect HS and BOD?
Poverty can prevent people in low-income countries from accessing healthcare, meaning that conditions such as heart disease could be left untreated and lead to premature death, therefore lowering life expectancy.
Inequality: different groups being treated unfairly
Discrimination: unfair treatment of particular groups
Groups who are discriminated against:
have higher rates of depression and anxiety
higher rates of premature death and under-5 mortality
more likely to be the victim of intentional violence
many minorities still face inequalities and discrimination:
minority racial groups
minority religious groups
females
LGBTQ people
RACE
Racial discrimination: when a person is treated less favourably than another person in a similar situation because of their race, colour, descent, national or ethnic origin or immigrant status
Racial discrimination occurs around the world and often results in social exclusion
prevents millions of people from education, access to healthcare, community participation, employment and housing
RELIGION
many members of religious or belief communities face discrimination based on their religion or belief
often results in an inability to access public education, health services and employment
In extreme cases, some people are arrested or killed due to their religious beliefs.
SEX: FEMALES
Sex: the physiological characteristics, including the DNA and sex organs, present in an individual at birth.
When women have the same power and control over their lives as men, their health status improves.
females often have less power and less control over resources than males
This typically leads to economic, political, social, educational and health disadvantages.
The lower status of women in many low and middle income countries
miss out on opportunities for education and employment.
two-thirds of the people in the world who lack basic literacy skills are female
many women work in jobs that are often badly paid, dangerous and laborious
Prostitution is an example of this, as it raises the levels of HIV/AIDS infections.
women earn 24 per cent less than men
up to 75 per cent of female employees work in informal jobs that are not protected under law in low and middle income countries
GENDER IDENTITY AND SEXUAL ORIENTATION
Those who do not identify as heterosexual or identify as cisgender, are often subjected to discrimination
including:
being refused jobs
being refused opportunities for education
being refused healthcare
subjected to sexual assault
subjected to physical beatings
subjected to criminal proceedings
subjected to the death penalty
experience higher rates of:
Mental disorders
Physical and sexual assault
Self-harm including suicide
Marketing: the activity or business of promoting and selling products or services, including market research and advertising.
Distribution: the action of sharing something out among a number of people
Improving technology has led to a decrease in barriers to communication, trade, transport and other forms of contact.
The result has been increased globalisation
Globalisation: the process whereby boundaries between countries are reduced or eliminated allowing individuals, groups and companies to act on a global scale
Globalisation makes it easier for companies to:
distribute, market and sell their services and products in all corners of the globe.
While some services and products can enhance health status, including certain pharmaceuticals and improved farming techniques, others can be detrimental to health status, including tobacco, alcohol and processed foods.
higher tobacco sales in low and middle income countries
many tobacco manufacturers have been targeting low and middle income countries in an attempt to make up lost revenue experienced in high income countries
80 per cent of the world’s smokers now live in low and middle income countries
lower health literacy
less laws and regulations
trying to tap into the female market through advertising and promotion.
Children have been influenced by advertising campaigns in low and middle income countries
rates of children who smoke have increased
Lack of education, tobacco industry distribution and marketing, and lack of health promotion interventions
leading to an increase the rate of smoking.
Prevalence of tobacco use for those aged 15 and over
alcohol manufacturers are increasingly marketing their products towards people in low and middle income countries.
Alcohol use is associated with about 3.5 per cent of global deaths.
Accessibility of healthcare in Australia may reduce the measurable impact of alcohol misuse
Alcohol misuse can dominate people’s lives, which decreases the opportunities for them to lead healthy lives
If an individual’s limited income is spent on alcohol, there may be less available to spend on food, clothing, shelter and healthcare.
directly impacts on the standard of living and increases the burden of disease.
Mortality rate per 100 000 due to alcohol consumption, 2017
Increasing incomes, and the migration of many people from rural areas to major cities, has increased access to processed foods.
As a result, many people have neglected their traditional diets, which are often low in fat, for westernised foods
These are often high in fat, salt and/or sugar and contribute to a more energy-dense diet.
contributing to an increased incidence of lifestyle diseases
China is already experiencing the effects of westernised diets, with more than one million people dying of stroke each year.
Many low and middle income countries now face a ‘double burden’ of disease.
They are still experiencing high rates of malnutrition associated with poverty
also high rates of conditions associated with wealth such as obesity and cardiovascular disease
Sustainability: creating an equitable society that meets the needs of all citizens and can be maintained indefinitely
Economic sustainability: relates to the capacity of future generations to earn an income and efficient use of resources to allow economic growth over time, in line with inflation and living costs.
low and middle income countries experience low levels of economic sustainability
INNOVATION + DIVERSITY OF INDUSTRIES
require a range of industries to promote economic growth and stability
Many low and middle income countries rely on agriculture as their sole industry
heavily dependent on unstable weather patterns and global markets
Many of the established industries in high income countries are undergoing significant change due to technological advancements
Such as:
robotics
automation
new and innovative sectors must be developed to ensure employment opportunities exist for the next generation
EMPLOYMENT
Adequate employment is a particular concern in low and middle income countries
Adequate employment opportunities are a vital component of economic sustainability
people can earn a wage
avoid poverty
contribute to their country’s economy
As the world’s population grows, economic sustainability will mean an increase in employment opportunities
all people of working age have the opportunity to work
ECONOMIC GROWTH
Ensuring economic sustainability requires sustained growth in GNI per capita to:
counter the impact of inflation
can continue to provide services, infrastructure and developments relating to industry
The GNI per capita is growing in most countries, however, a more equitable distribution of income is required
Economic growth must not decrease the ability of future generations to sustain economic growth
TRADE
Producers in low and middle income countries must be able to trade their goods on the global market to:
increase their incomes
assist in growing their country’s economy
In an attempt to keep prices low in high income countries, producers in low and middle income countries have traditionally been paid less than what their products are worth
unfair trading model has made it difficult for lower income countries to promote their economy and reduce poverty
Social sustainability: creating an equitable society that meets the needs of all citizens at the present without compromising the ability to meet these needs for future generations
SOCIAL SUPPORT SYSTEMS
provide support for vulnerable people who are unable to earn an income by providing access to essential resources such as housing, food and basic healthcare
If poverty is eliminated, all people can access the resources required for a decent standard of living
Social protection systems promote health and wellbeing by:
reducing the risk of infectious diseases (physical health and wellbeing)
increasing mental health and wellbeing as people are less likely to experience stress related to accessing resources such as food
enabling people to be better equipped to deal with misfortune, which promotes emotional health and wellbeing
GENDER EQUALITY
the elimination of all forms of discrimination and violence against women and girls
The achievement of optimal health and wellbeing is not possible if half the population is denied human rights and equal opportunities.
Gender equality promotes health and wellbeing by:
improved physical health and wellbeing, as women will be less likely to experience injuries as a result of violence
improved mental health and wellbeing due to decreased stress levels, as women will be less worried about the impacts of violence and discrimination
improved social health and wellbeing, as females can make their own decisions about their lives, such as when and whom they marry.
WORKING CONDITIONS
ensure that all people can access meaningful employment
Currently, billions of people are either unemployed or working in conditions that violate their basic human rights and destroy their dignity.
It is estimated that 150 million children between the ages of 5 and 17 currently work in conditions that are considered illegal, hazardous, or extremely exploitative
Safe and decent employment promotes health and wellbeing by:
social health and wellbeing improved when children can stay in school and socialise with their peers.
fewer people would be forced into prostitution, which reduces their risk of contracting HIV and other STIs, promoting physical health and wellbeing.
working in safe and decent jobs promotes positive emotions, including pride and satisfaction, which improves emotional health and wellbeing.
People will feel safe at work and earn a reliable income, which can lower levels of stress and promote mental health and wellbeing.
Safe and decent work promotes feelings of connectedness, which promotes spiritual health and wellbeing.
POLITICAL + LEGAL RIGHTS
The opportunities available in a society must be equitable for all people
Women, indigenous populations and ethnic minorities are often under-represented in governments and often do not have their rights upheld.
Improving political and legal rights promotes health and wellbeing by:
developing policies that prevent discrimination and promote equal opportunity for education and employment. This can reduce anxiety as people feel socially included which promotes mental health and wellbeing.
connecting women, Indigenous people and ethnic minorities to the communities in which they live, which can promote spiritual health and wellbeing
addressing violence against women, reducing the risk of injury from violence, and promoting physical health and wellbeing.
PEACE + SECURITY
A peaceful environment and society are essential for promoting optimal health and wellbeing
when a country is in conflict, its level of health and wellbeing may be significantly lower than in times of peace
Peace and security promote health and wellbeing by:
Financial resources are directed to infrastructure, education, healthcare and social protection rather than being directed to a war effort. This means future generations do not have to focus on rebuilding, and can instead direct their efforts towards promoting their health and wellbeing.
People can go about their daily lives, such as attending work or going to school, which will promote social health and wellbeing as people have the opportunity to interact and socialise. This promotes all areas of health and wellbeing as people can work to reduce poverty which assists in providing resources such as food, water, shelter and healthcare. This can reduce stress, promote social interaction, reduce the risk of infection, promote positive emotions and give people a sense of purpose in their lives.
The risk of personal injury and the destruction of infrastructure is reduced, which increases access to food and services such as healthcare. This enhances physical health and wellbeing and means that vulnerable groups can be reached to address issues such as poverty and food insecurity and people are less likely to be displaced.
Environmental sustainability: ensuring the natural environment is used in a way that will preserve resources into the future
Human activities should use natural resources only at a rate that allows these resources to replenish for future generations
in low- and middle-income countries this is often a challenge, as many of these countries exploit their natural environment as a means of generating income and facilitating trade
BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity: relates to the variety of all forms of life - plants, animals and micro-organisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystems of which they form
provides many processes and resources promoting health and wellbeing:
provision of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide
protection of water resources
soil formation, including nutrient storage and recycling
nourishment of plants and animals that are used for food
wood products used for building, heating and cooking
fibres used for clothing
resources used for medicine
opportunities for recreation and tourism.
USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES
The natural resources that humans use can be classified as either renewable or non-renewable
Renewable resources: refer to those that are replenished naturally and over a relatively short period of time, including
crops
water
oxygen
fish stocks
forests
renewable resources can be used for human use with little impact on the ecosystem
Sustainable use of renewable resources promotes health and wellbeing:
allows future generations to be able to earn an income by utilising natural resources, which can assist in providing a range of goods and services required for optimal health and wellbeing such as food, shelter and healthcare
preserves natural environments that many people value for cultural reasons, which promotes spiritual health and wellbeing. Natural environments also be used for socialising and relaxation, which promotes social and mental health and wellbeing.
WASTE REMOVAL + POLLUTION
Maintaining clean ecosystems is important in maintaining environmental sustainability
Environmental sustainability requires humans to minimise their waste where possible and appropriately treat the waste products that are produced to reduce the impact on the environment
Adequate waste removal has many benefits for health and wellbeing by:
ensuring sustainable access to clean water. This can prevent infectious diseases and promote physical health and wellbeing. Individuals will not have to spend hours collecting water each day and can instead pursue employment, which can promote feelings of satisfaction and achievement, which promotes emotional health and wellbeing.
providing nutrient-rich soil. Crops fit for human consumption can be grown, which can promote the functioning of body systems and promote physical health and wellbeing. Food security can reduce levels of stress and promote mental health and wellbeing.
CLIMATE CHANGE
climate change affects weather patterns such as rainfall, drought, wind and heat waves.
the global average surface temperature has increased by approximately 0.65 degrees Celsius over the past 50 years and will increase even more rapidly over the next century
The rate at which sea levels have risen has also increased in recent decades and is also expected to continue over the coming century
vital for promoting health and wellbeing for several reasons:
Weather and rainfall patterns will stabilise, which may reduce the rate and severity of natural disasters. This will reduce the number of injuries and deaths that occur as a result of these events, which will promote physical health and well-being and assist in maintaining the infrastructure that is required for social, emotional, mental and spiritual health and wellbeing. Predictable rainfall allows crops to be grown and promotes food security, which will promote physical health and wellbeing.
Sea levels will not continue to rise. This will ensure people in low-lying areas will not be displaced, which can reduce levels of anxiety and promote mental health and wellbeing. Fresh water sources will also be preserved, which promotes physical health and wellbeing.
Communicable disease rates will decrease, improving physical health and wellbeing. Preventing further climate change will prevent disease carrying organisms from spreading to other areas as environmental conditions will not support their migration.
Ecosystems can be maintained if temperatures do not continue to rise. This assists in providing resources such as clean water, air and nutrient-rich soil, which are all required for overall health and wellbeing.
not just economic factors but social as well
look at the people in a country
human development is about creating an environment where people can:
develop to their full potential
lead productive and creative lives
can expand their choices
enhance their capabilities
have access to knowledge
participate in the life of their community
participate in decisions affecting their lives
a tool to measure and rank countries based on their level of social and economic development
statistic on a scale between 0-1
3 dimensions:
long and healthy life
knowledge
a decent standard of living
measured by 4 indicators:
life expectancy at birth
mean years of schooling
expected years of schooling
GNI per capita
LIMITATIONS
only looks at certain aspects
doesn’t show the quality of life
doesn’t show the inequalities and injustices
the process where boundaries between countries are reduced or eliminated allowing individuals, groups and companies to act on a global scale.
described as transforming the different societies of the world into one global society.
A reduction in barriers to trade, communication and transport contributes to this process.
can reduce costs of items to be produce
can cause people in high - middle income countries to lose their jobs to people in low income countries
has a negative impact towards the environment
Climate change: refers to changes in global weather patterns,
may also be used to refer specifically to the rapid climate change post 1900
occurred largely due to human activity
changes in global weather patterns:
an increase in average global temperature
increased level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere - due to use of fossil fuels
Effects of climate change:
rising sea levels
changing weather patterns
more extreme weather events
RISING SEA LEVELS
Rising surface temperature of the earth has caused sea levels to rise
due to polar ice caps melting
as the temperature of the ocean rises, sea levels also rise
water particles expand as they warm
Sea levels have risen by 0.19 metres since the beginning of the 20th century
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF RISING SEA LEVELS
land erosion
lead to the destruction of natural landscapes: beaches
lead to the destruction of buildings: houses
contamination
contamination of freshwater reserves
damage to food supply and livestock due to saltwater
reduction of land available to live on: low-lying villages and coastal areas
can force individuals living in these areas to migrate
can force people to live in densely populated areas.
less habitat availability for animals
polar bears
increasing risk of becomeing endangered or extinct
IMPACT ON H+W
Rising sea levels can lead to the destruction of people’s homes, jobs, or livelihoods (e.g. if food crops are destroyed, people can lose their capacity to earn an income). This may lead to individuals having a lower sense of hope for the future and reduce their sense of purpose which often comes from working, negatively impacting spiritual health and wellbeing.
CHANGING WEATHER PATTERNS
the average surface temperature of the Earth has steadily increased
prolonged periods of heat have occurred more frequently
rainfall has become heavier and more intense
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF CHANGING WEATHER PATTERNS
Drying out soil
limit the amount of food that can be grown
negative health effects
heat stroke
heavy rainfall
flash flooding
can damge infrastructure: houses and roads
IMPACT ON H+W
Increased heavy rainfall can lead to more frequent flash flooding. This can create stress and anxiety amongst individuals about their property becoming damaged, negatively impacting mental health and wellbeing.
EXTREME WEATHER EVENTS
increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events and some natural disasters
extreme weather events include:
flooding
drought
cyclones
extreme heat
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF EXTREME WEATHER EVENT
increased risk of related injuries and deaths.
damage to natural landscape and man-made infrastructure.
contamination of natural water reserves.
IMPACT ON H+W
Climate change has led to extreme heat and droughts in some parts of the world. This extreme weather event can negatively impact physical health and wellbeing by reducing the functioning of the body and its systems due to heat stroke from extremely hot weather conditions.
CONFLICT
Conflict: refers to a violent or non-violent clash either within a country or between two or more countries
the number of conflicts globally are currently rising
Conflict also often requires assistance from other countries to provide resources for those who may be injured or displaced
NEGATIVE IMPACTS ON CONFLICT
increasing the number of deaths and injuries.
creating fear, stress, and anxiety.
reducing levels of peace.
forcing individuals to leave their home country, which can lead to mass migration.
severing interpersonal relationships with members of the community due to individuals being forced to flee conflict zones.
damaging homes and other forms of infrastructure, such as schools and hospitals.
IMPACT ON H+W
Living in a conflict zone can disrupt an individual’s ability to live their life, and can sometimes force them to seek shelter or even flee. This can limit how often they see or communicate with their friends, family, and community members, making it more difficult to maintain positive relationships with others and form new relationships, negatively impacting social health and wellbeing.
Conflict can often involve violence and the use of weapons which can lead to innocent civilians sustaining severe injuries, negatively impacting physical health and wellbeing by impacting the functioning of the body and its systems.
MASS MIGRATION
Mass migration: refers to the relocation of a large number of individuals from one geographical location to another
can occur due to:
lack of employment opportunities and financial hardship.
climate change
destruction of homes and infrastructure, which may occur due to natural disasters.
political instability.
the abuse of human rights.
lack of access to resources, such as safe drinking water and nutritious foods.
increases in forced displacement
large groups of individuals have to leave their home, often seeking a life free of persecution, where they can feel safe and lead productive lives
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF MASS MIGRATION
often miss their family and friends from their home country
may find it hard to assimilate into their new country
increased risk of anxiety and PTSD
IMPACTS ON H+W
Those who experience mass migration may struggle to settle into life in their new country, such as finding it hard to secure a job or build connections with those in their community. This can negatively impact spiritual health and wellbeing as they may not feel like they belong in their new community and may lack a sense of purpose.
Individuals who experience forced displacement may have to temporarily stay in refugee camps due to mass migration leading to an excess of refugees in particular regions. Refugee camps often have poor living conditions and can be isolating, negatively impacting emotional health and wellbeing as individuals may be fearful of when they will be able to leave the refugee camp and have a reduced ability to display resilience.
WORLD TRADE
World trade: involves the exchange of goods and services between countries in exchange for financial compensation
World trade has increased over time due to the effects of globalisation and the existence of increasingly positive relationships between countries
Increased world trade allows countries to generate greater incomes
can increase the number of meaningful employment opportunities available and give the government more financial resources
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF WORLD TRADE
very low pay for workers in low income countries
for extremely long hours with no breaks, leading to fatigue and other negative effects
dangerous environments which can pose danger to the workers,
factories that are unstable and may collapse
expose workers to toxic fumes.
Child labour
IMPACT ON H+W
Greater world trade opportunities make it more likely for people within a community to find meaningful employment. This can allow more individuals to earn a decent income, which allows them to financially access resources they need. This promotes mental health and wellbeing by reducing stress caused by being unable to afford resources, such as food and healthcare.
Greater levels of world trade has increased the number of people in low-income countries working in poor conditions. This can negatively affect physical health and wellbeing due to these workers often having to work for long periods of time with no breaks, increasing levels of fatigue and the likelihood of injuries occurring.
TOURISM
Tourism: refers to individuals travelling to locations for personal interest or business reasons
rates of tourism has increased over time
BENEFITS OF TOURISM
more meaningful employment opportunities
greater understanding between different cultures
the preservation of important cultural sites which are valued by local communities
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF TOURISM
tourist attractions often becoming polluted and becoming damaged by large numbers of visitors
pollution due to tourism can lead to water sources becoming contaminated
damages are particularly harmful when the tourist attraction has spiritual or religious meaning to the local population
greater movement of people between countries can enhance the ability for communicable diseases to spread globally
tourist attractions in low-income countries often lack regulations
can increase the risk of morbidity due to injuries
can increse mortality from activities, such as boat rides and hiking
IMPACT ON H+W
Increased levels of tourism can allow individuals to gain exposure to more cultures, potentially reducing prejudices and stereotypes they may hold towards other cultures. This can promote social health and wellbeing by facilitating the formation of new relationships with, and greater levels of empathy for, individuals from other cultures.
Increased levels of tourism can lead to tourist locations becoming polluted which can lead to many ongoing impacts. For example, an increased number of tourists at a beach can increase the amount of rubbish and pollution, which can contaminate the water and lead to the death of fish and sealife. This can negatively impact physical health and wellbeing as it can lead to a reduced availability of food for the local town, reducing their ability to meet their nutritional intake and support the functioning of the body and its systems.
DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES
Maintenance of e-health records
Mobile tsunami warnings
Mobile bushfire and flood warnings
Mobile and internet based fitness and nutrition programs
World Health Organisation SMS alerts for disease control, such as the ebola virus
BENEFITS OF INCREASED KNOWLEDGE SHARING
Easier access to health information for individuals who may be geographically isolated
individuals who would otherwise have to spend a large amount of time travelling to medical clinics can access healthcare from home
can reduce the number of health conditions which go undiagnosed
Can reduce the financial burden of seeking medical advice
as many online health services are free or are much cheaper compared to seeking face-to-face care
may also increase the number of individuals who seek medical care, or maintain medical care
May reduce the strain on healthcare systems
Individuals can check online or digital health resources, such as Nurse On Call to seek clarification as to whether they need to go to a general practitioner or hospital for face-to-face care.
NEGATIVE IMPCACTS OF INCREASED KNOWLEDGE SHARING
Individuals are more likely to access information or advice which may be illegitimate or ill-advised.
this can lead to misdiagnoses
Individuals can also gain health advice from individuals who are not qualified
aking advice from an online blog written by an unqualified person on whether to access vaccinations
some of the information found online stems from conspiracy theories and corrupt studies
Health data can be hacked or distributed in an illegal manner.
compromising the confidentiality and privacy of individuals
IMPACT ON H+W
Sharing knowledge via text messages in times of disaster can reduce devastation in the wake of a disaster. These texts are often sent by government bodies, such as the Department of Health. This can promote physical health and wellbeing as sending text messages for individuals to evacuate in time of a disaster, such as a bush fire, can reduce the experience of illness, injury, and death
Increased access to digital technologies allows all individuals across the world to maintain communication. Therefore individuals can form and maintain relationships with others who they are geographically separated from, promoting social health and wellbeing.
Online health records, such as the My Health Record, can make it easier to access and leak the health information of others. This can negatively impact mental health and wellbeing as individuals who have their health records leaked may be stressed and anxious about people they know becoming aware of medical conditions and/or treatments they have accessed
The World Bank has classified countries according to their GNI per capita.
Gross National Income (GNI) per capita: The total income generated by a country in 12 months, divided by its population
As the World Bank has classified countries according to their average income there are large variations within each country
There are however common characteristics that can be seen in each of these countries
GNI per capita countries in the group n.o countries in this group | |||
High income | $12,236 or more | Australia, Canada, Switzerland, United Kingdom | 81 |
Upper middle income | $3956 - $12,235 | China, Brazil, Turkey, Romania | 56 |
Lower middle income | $1,006 - $3955 | Cambodia, Indonesia, Kenya, Bangladesh | 47 |
Low income | $1,005 or less | Ethiopia, Chad, Burundi, Afghanistan | 34 |
WATER AND SANITATION
safe water and sanitation are characteristics are characteristics of high income and many middle income countries
low income countries tend to lack access
access is responsible for a large proportion of the variation between the 3 groups
FOOD SECURITY
food security: reliable access to sufficient quality, affordable, nutritious and culturally appropriate food
people in high income countries generally have access to quality food supply
those in low income countries tend to lack access
HOUSING
many people in low and middle income countries often lack access to adequate housing.
with:
poor ventilation
lack of heating and cooling
poor resistance to infestation of disease-carrying organisms such as insects
lack of cooking facilities and running water
poor protection from the elements.
urban slums are also a common feature of cities compared to high-income countries.
INFRASTRUCTURE
responsible for many differences between high, middle and low income countries.
High-income countries usually have:
adequate roads
piped water
sewerage systems
electricity grids
telecommunication systems
People living in low and middle income countries often lack access to such facilities
especially in rural and remote areas and urban slums.
LEVELS OF CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS
High income countries have highter CO2 emissions
Carbon dioxide emissions have been linked to climate change and the associated effects on sea levels and changing weather patterns.
Low and middle income countries are often the most affected by climate change as they lack the economic resources to effectively deal with the associated impacts.
HEALTHCARE
High income countries generally have public health systems.
People are usually able to access basic healthcare when they need it regardless of their ability to pay.
Those in low and middle income countries often lack access to suitable healthcare, which affects the level of health and wellbeing they experience
EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT LEVELS
High rates of education and employment are characteristic of most high income countries.
People often have choices about the level of education and the type of career they pursue.
Many low income countries do not have a developed education system
families in low income countries usually have to pay for their children to attend school.
TECHNOLOGY
Access to technology: includes access to communication systems, the internet and medical technologies.
can be used to assist countries in developing their economies, building trade opportunities, furthering education and treating ill-health.
more accessable in high income countries
Low income countries often lack access to technology,
impacts on the ability of citizens to gain an education and earn an income.
LEGAL SYSTEMS
Most high income countries experience strong and stable political and legal systems
A strong legal system is important for ensuring that human rights, such as the right to education and the right to live safely, are upheld
especially with the increased risk of civil conflict, which is also more common in low income countries.
Many low income countries lack a strong legal system
SOCIAL SECURITY SYSTEMS
in most high income countries Individuals who are unemployed, or unable to work due to illness or disability, are provided with financial support.
Low and middle income countries often do not have the means to provide assistance to those who are unemployed or unable to work
driven further into poverty
GENDER EQUALITY
High income countries often experience gender equality.
both males and females have opportunities and choices with regards to education, employment, community participation and recreation
In many low income countries, however, females do not have the same opportunities as males in society.
Females may have limited opportunities for education and often work in fields tending crops and/or spend significant time collecting water and preparing meals.
BIRTH RATES AND POPULATION GROWTH
Low birth rates and slow rates of population growth are characteristics of many high income countries
due to:
Access to contraception, choice with regards to family planning, career choices and education
High birth rates in many low and middle income countries can limit the ability of parents to care for all of their children
provide them with the resources required to live a healthy life
INCOME
high income countries have high average incomes with almost 0% of people living in extreme poverty
Extreme poverty: measured as living on less than $1.90USD a day
TRADE OPPORTUNITIES
High income countries generally have various trading opportunities, particularly internationally.
High income countries tend to have well developed infrastructure
including roads, ports and airports
to support efficient, effective and streamlined trading processes
RANGE OF INDUSTRIES
High income countries generally have a wide range of industries to allow their citizens to earn a sufficient income
Industries common to high income countries:
mining
manufacturing
healthcare
education
Agriculture is also a common industry in high income countries
unlike low income countries, there is not such a significant reliance on this industry
DEBT LEVELS
High income countries generally have lower levels of international debt
Higher average incomes, a greater range of industries and international trade opportunities allow for greater income and tax generation
less reliance on international loans
When low income countries require international loans, they often require large amounts of interest to be repaid.
High interest loan repayments make it almost impossible for low income countries to break the poverty cycle.
SIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES | |
Life expectancy and HALE has increased over time in most countries | The lower the income of the country, the lower the life expectancy |
Females have a higher life expectancy than males |
SIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES | |
Under 5 mortality rate improved in most countries around the world | Lower income countries experience higher rates of mortality and morbidity |
Non-communicable diseases account for the highest percentage of deaths | Maternal mortality significantly higher in low income countries |
SIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES | |
The rate of YLD generally increases with life expectancy | YLL rates for most causes are higher in low and middle income countries |
Total YLL by non-communicable diseases is much higher in high income countries |
safe water: water that is not contaminated with disease-causing pathogens such as bacteria and viruses and chemicals such as lead and mercury
safe water required for:
consumption
food preparation and cooking
washing and hygiene
agriculture and production
How does safe water affect HS and BOD?
Diarrhoea can be caused by drinking unsafe water, which can negatively impact YLD. The body dehydrates because of diarrhoea however more unsafe water needs to be consumed because of thirst. This causes more deadly bacteria to be consumed and can lead to other conditions such as cholera which can lead to premature death, particularly in children. Therefore, increasing the Under 5 Mortality Rate.
typhoid, cholera, malaria, diarrhoea
Sanitation: generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of human urine and faeces
can also refer to the maintenance of hygienic conditions through services such as garbage disposal and wastewater disposal
adequate sanitation requires flushing a toilet or covered latrine and the hygienic removal or containment of the waste products.
Globally 2.5 billion, or one in three, people lack access to basic sanitation.
Almost one billion of these people defecate in the open, for example in street gutters, behind bushes or into open bodies of water.
This waste often seeps into water sources and contaminates the water that people will eventually consume.
Explain how the use of sanitation contributes to differences in HS and BOD?
If there is adequate sanitation ghis might mean there is sewerage disposal and human wast isn’t flowing into the streets. This reduces the risk of contracting and infectious disease such as diarrhoea from contaminated sewage water, contributing to lower morbidity rates. If there is adequate santiation, facilities, this might mean that menstruating girls dont have to walk a long, unsafe distance to find an adequate toilet. This reduces the risk of them getting kidnapped and murdered by violent gangs, contributing to a lower YLL rate.
Poverty: deprivation which often stems from lack of income but presents as a lack of material resources such as food, shelter, clean water and healthcare
deprivation of intangible resources such as social inclusion, opportunities for education and decision making.
The GNI of a country does not determine how the wealth is distributed.
In many countries, it is common for a few people to control most of the wealth, leaving a majority of the country with living standards well below
means that low and middle income countries experience the concerns associated with poverty
such as:
high rates of communicable diseases
higher rates of child and adult mortality
they are also likely to experience issues and diseases associated with wealth which are also common in high income countries
such as:
obesity
diabetes
cardiovascular disease
Experiencing issues and diseases associated with both poverty and wealth in one country is referred to as a double burden of disease.
poverty can prevent access to:
Government services (includes social services)
infrustructure
nutritious food
clean water and sanitation
education
healthcare
adequate housing
The cycle of poverty is difficult to break without being educated
often need money for education
How does poverty affect HS and BOD?
Poverty can prevent people in low-income countries from accessing healthcare, meaning that conditions such as heart disease could be left untreated and lead to premature death, therefore lowering life expectancy.
Inequality: different groups being treated unfairly
Discrimination: unfair treatment of particular groups
Groups who are discriminated against:
have higher rates of depression and anxiety
higher rates of premature death and under-5 mortality
more likely to be the victim of intentional violence
many minorities still face inequalities and discrimination:
minority racial groups
minority religious groups
females
LGBTQ people
RACE
Racial discrimination: when a person is treated less favourably than another person in a similar situation because of their race, colour, descent, national or ethnic origin or immigrant status
Racial discrimination occurs around the world and often results in social exclusion
prevents millions of people from education, access to healthcare, community participation, employment and housing
RELIGION
many members of religious or belief communities face discrimination based on their religion or belief
often results in an inability to access public education, health services and employment
In extreme cases, some people are arrested or killed due to their religious beliefs.
SEX: FEMALES
Sex: the physiological characteristics, including the DNA and sex organs, present in an individual at birth.
When women have the same power and control over their lives as men, their health status improves.
females often have less power and less control over resources than males
This typically leads to economic, political, social, educational and health disadvantages.
The lower status of women in many low and middle income countries
miss out on opportunities for education and employment.
two-thirds of the people in the world who lack basic literacy skills are female
many women work in jobs that are often badly paid, dangerous and laborious
Prostitution is an example of this, as it raises the levels of HIV/AIDS infections.
women earn 24 per cent less than men
up to 75 per cent of female employees work in informal jobs that are not protected under law in low and middle income countries
GENDER IDENTITY AND SEXUAL ORIENTATION
Those who do not identify as heterosexual or identify as cisgender, are often subjected to discrimination
including:
being refused jobs
being refused opportunities for education
being refused healthcare
subjected to sexual assault
subjected to physical beatings
subjected to criminal proceedings
subjected to the death penalty
experience higher rates of:
Mental disorders
Physical and sexual assault
Self-harm including suicide
Marketing: the activity or business of promoting and selling products or services, including market research and advertising.
Distribution: the action of sharing something out among a number of people
Improving technology has led to a decrease in barriers to communication, trade, transport and other forms of contact.
The result has been increased globalisation
Globalisation: the process whereby boundaries between countries are reduced or eliminated allowing individuals, groups and companies to act on a global scale
Globalisation makes it easier for companies to:
distribute, market and sell their services and products in all corners of the globe.
While some services and products can enhance health status, including certain pharmaceuticals and improved farming techniques, others can be detrimental to health status, including tobacco, alcohol and processed foods.
higher tobacco sales in low and middle income countries
many tobacco manufacturers have been targeting low and middle income countries in an attempt to make up lost revenue experienced in high income countries
80 per cent of the world’s smokers now live in low and middle income countries
lower health literacy
less laws and regulations
trying to tap into the female market through advertising and promotion.
Children have been influenced by advertising campaigns in low and middle income countries
rates of children who smoke have increased
Lack of education, tobacco industry distribution and marketing, and lack of health promotion interventions
leading to an increase the rate of smoking.
Prevalence of tobacco use for those aged 15 and over
alcohol manufacturers are increasingly marketing their products towards people in low and middle income countries.
Alcohol use is associated with about 3.5 per cent of global deaths.
Accessibility of healthcare in Australia may reduce the measurable impact of alcohol misuse
Alcohol misuse can dominate people’s lives, which decreases the opportunities for them to lead healthy lives
If an individual’s limited income is spent on alcohol, there may be less available to spend on food, clothing, shelter and healthcare.
directly impacts on the standard of living and increases the burden of disease.
Mortality rate per 100 000 due to alcohol consumption, 2017
Increasing incomes, and the migration of many people from rural areas to major cities, has increased access to processed foods.
As a result, many people have neglected their traditional diets, which are often low in fat, for westernised foods
These are often high in fat, salt and/or sugar and contribute to a more energy-dense diet.
contributing to an increased incidence of lifestyle diseases
China is already experiencing the effects of westernised diets, with more than one million people dying of stroke each year.
Many low and middle income countries now face a ‘double burden’ of disease.
They are still experiencing high rates of malnutrition associated with poverty
also high rates of conditions associated with wealth such as obesity and cardiovascular disease
Sustainability: creating an equitable society that meets the needs of all citizens and can be maintained indefinitely
Economic sustainability: relates to the capacity of future generations to earn an income and efficient use of resources to allow economic growth over time, in line with inflation and living costs.
low and middle income countries experience low levels of economic sustainability
INNOVATION + DIVERSITY OF INDUSTRIES
require a range of industries to promote economic growth and stability
Many low and middle income countries rely on agriculture as their sole industry
heavily dependent on unstable weather patterns and global markets
Many of the established industries in high income countries are undergoing significant change due to technological advancements
Such as:
robotics
automation
new and innovative sectors must be developed to ensure employment opportunities exist for the next generation
EMPLOYMENT
Adequate employment is a particular concern in low and middle income countries
Adequate employment opportunities are a vital component of economic sustainability
people can earn a wage
avoid poverty
contribute to their country’s economy
As the world’s population grows, economic sustainability will mean an increase in employment opportunities
all people of working age have the opportunity to work
ECONOMIC GROWTH
Ensuring economic sustainability requires sustained growth in GNI per capita to:
counter the impact of inflation
can continue to provide services, infrastructure and developments relating to industry
The GNI per capita is growing in most countries, however, a more equitable distribution of income is required
Economic growth must not decrease the ability of future generations to sustain economic growth
TRADE
Producers in low and middle income countries must be able to trade their goods on the global market to:
increase their incomes
assist in growing their country’s economy
In an attempt to keep prices low in high income countries, producers in low and middle income countries have traditionally been paid less than what their products are worth
unfair trading model has made it difficult for lower income countries to promote their economy and reduce poverty
Social sustainability: creating an equitable society that meets the needs of all citizens at the present without compromising the ability to meet these needs for future generations
SOCIAL SUPPORT SYSTEMS
provide support for vulnerable people who are unable to earn an income by providing access to essential resources such as housing, food and basic healthcare
If poverty is eliminated, all people can access the resources required for a decent standard of living
Social protection systems promote health and wellbeing by:
reducing the risk of infectious diseases (physical health and wellbeing)
increasing mental health and wellbeing as people are less likely to experience stress related to accessing resources such as food
enabling people to be better equipped to deal with misfortune, which promotes emotional health and wellbeing
GENDER EQUALITY
the elimination of all forms of discrimination and violence against women and girls
The achievement of optimal health and wellbeing is not possible if half the population is denied human rights and equal opportunities.
Gender equality promotes health and wellbeing by:
improved physical health and wellbeing, as women will be less likely to experience injuries as a result of violence
improved mental health and wellbeing due to decreased stress levels, as women will be less worried about the impacts of violence and discrimination
improved social health and wellbeing, as females can make their own decisions about their lives, such as when and whom they marry.
WORKING CONDITIONS
ensure that all people can access meaningful employment
Currently, billions of people are either unemployed or working in conditions that violate their basic human rights and destroy their dignity.
It is estimated that 150 million children between the ages of 5 and 17 currently work in conditions that are considered illegal, hazardous, or extremely exploitative
Safe and decent employment promotes health and wellbeing by:
social health and wellbeing improved when children can stay in school and socialise with their peers.
fewer people would be forced into prostitution, which reduces their risk of contracting HIV and other STIs, promoting physical health and wellbeing.
working in safe and decent jobs promotes positive emotions, including pride and satisfaction, which improves emotional health and wellbeing.
People will feel safe at work and earn a reliable income, which can lower levels of stress and promote mental health and wellbeing.
Safe and decent work promotes feelings of connectedness, which promotes spiritual health and wellbeing.
POLITICAL + LEGAL RIGHTS
The opportunities available in a society must be equitable for all people
Women, indigenous populations and ethnic minorities are often under-represented in governments and often do not have their rights upheld.
Improving political and legal rights promotes health and wellbeing by:
developing policies that prevent discrimination and promote equal opportunity for education and employment. This can reduce anxiety as people feel socially included which promotes mental health and wellbeing.
connecting women, Indigenous people and ethnic minorities to the communities in which they live, which can promote spiritual health and wellbeing
addressing violence against women, reducing the risk of injury from violence, and promoting physical health and wellbeing.
PEACE + SECURITY
A peaceful environment and society are essential for promoting optimal health and wellbeing
when a country is in conflict, its level of health and wellbeing may be significantly lower than in times of peace
Peace and security promote health and wellbeing by:
Financial resources are directed to infrastructure, education, healthcare and social protection rather than being directed to a war effort. This means future generations do not have to focus on rebuilding, and can instead direct their efforts towards promoting their health and wellbeing.
People can go about their daily lives, such as attending work or going to school, which will promote social health and wellbeing as people have the opportunity to interact and socialise. This promotes all areas of health and wellbeing as people can work to reduce poverty which assists in providing resources such as food, water, shelter and healthcare. This can reduce stress, promote social interaction, reduce the risk of infection, promote positive emotions and give people a sense of purpose in their lives.
The risk of personal injury and the destruction of infrastructure is reduced, which increases access to food and services such as healthcare. This enhances physical health and wellbeing and means that vulnerable groups can be reached to address issues such as poverty and food insecurity and people are less likely to be displaced.
Environmental sustainability: ensuring the natural environment is used in a way that will preserve resources into the future
Human activities should use natural resources only at a rate that allows these resources to replenish for future generations
in low- and middle-income countries this is often a challenge, as many of these countries exploit their natural environment as a means of generating income and facilitating trade
BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity: relates to the variety of all forms of life - plants, animals and micro-organisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystems of which they form
provides many processes and resources promoting health and wellbeing:
provision of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide
protection of water resources
soil formation, including nutrient storage and recycling
nourishment of plants and animals that are used for food
wood products used for building, heating and cooking
fibres used for clothing
resources used for medicine
opportunities for recreation and tourism.
USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES
The natural resources that humans use can be classified as either renewable or non-renewable
Renewable resources: refer to those that are replenished naturally and over a relatively short period of time, including
crops
water
oxygen
fish stocks
forests
renewable resources can be used for human use with little impact on the ecosystem
Sustainable use of renewable resources promotes health and wellbeing:
allows future generations to be able to earn an income by utilising natural resources, which can assist in providing a range of goods and services required for optimal health and wellbeing such as food, shelter and healthcare
preserves natural environments that many people value for cultural reasons, which promotes spiritual health and wellbeing. Natural environments also be used for socialising and relaxation, which promotes social and mental health and wellbeing.
WASTE REMOVAL + POLLUTION
Maintaining clean ecosystems is important in maintaining environmental sustainability
Environmental sustainability requires humans to minimise their waste where possible and appropriately treat the waste products that are produced to reduce the impact on the environment
Adequate waste removal has many benefits for health and wellbeing by:
ensuring sustainable access to clean water. This can prevent infectious diseases and promote physical health and wellbeing. Individuals will not have to spend hours collecting water each day and can instead pursue employment, which can promote feelings of satisfaction and achievement, which promotes emotional health and wellbeing.
providing nutrient-rich soil. Crops fit for human consumption can be grown, which can promote the functioning of body systems and promote physical health and wellbeing. Food security can reduce levels of stress and promote mental health and wellbeing.
CLIMATE CHANGE
climate change affects weather patterns such as rainfall, drought, wind and heat waves.
the global average surface temperature has increased by approximately 0.65 degrees Celsius over the past 50 years and will increase even more rapidly over the next century
The rate at which sea levels have risen has also increased in recent decades and is also expected to continue over the coming century
vital for promoting health and wellbeing for several reasons:
Weather and rainfall patterns will stabilise, which may reduce the rate and severity of natural disasters. This will reduce the number of injuries and deaths that occur as a result of these events, which will promote physical health and well-being and assist in maintaining the infrastructure that is required for social, emotional, mental and spiritual health and wellbeing. Predictable rainfall allows crops to be grown and promotes food security, which will promote physical health and wellbeing.
Sea levels will not continue to rise. This will ensure people in low-lying areas will not be displaced, which can reduce levels of anxiety and promote mental health and wellbeing. Fresh water sources will also be preserved, which promotes physical health and wellbeing.
Communicable disease rates will decrease, improving physical health and wellbeing. Preventing further climate change will prevent disease carrying organisms from spreading to other areas as environmental conditions will not support their migration.
Ecosystems can be maintained if temperatures do not continue to rise. This assists in providing resources such as clean water, air and nutrient-rich soil, which are all required for overall health and wellbeing.
not just economic factors but social as well
look at the people in a country
human development is about creating an environment where people can:
develop to their full potential
lead productive and creative lives
can expand their choices
enhance their capabilities
have access to knowledge
participate in the life of their community
participate in decisions affecting their lives
a tool to measure and rank countries based on their level of social and economic development
statistic on a scale between 0-1
3 dimensions:
long and healthy life
knowledge
a decent standard of living
measured by 4 indicators:
life expectancy at birth
mean years of schooling
expected years of schooling
GNI per capita
LIMITATIONS
only looks at certain aspects
doesn’t show the quality of life
doesn’t show the inequalities and injustices
the process where boundaries between countries are reduced or eliminated allowing individuals, groups and companies to act on a global scale.
described as transforming the different societies of the world into one global society.
A reduction in barriers to trade, communication and transport contributes to this process.
can reduce costs of items to be produce
can cause people in high - middle income countries to lose their jobs to people in low income countries
has a negative impact towards the environment
Climate change: refers to changes in global weather patterns,
may also be used to refer specifically to the rapid climate change post 1900
occurred largely due to human activity
changes in global weather patterns:
an increase in average global temperature
increased level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere - due to use of fossil fuels
Effects of climate change:
rising sea levels
changing weather patterns
more extreme weather events
RISING SEA LEVELS
Rising surface temperature of the earth has caused sea levels to rise
due to polar ice caps melting
as the temperature of the ocean rises, sea levels also rise
water particles expand as they warm
Sea levels have risen by 0.19 metres since the beginning of the 20th century
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF RISING SEA LEVELS
land erosion
lead to the destruction of natural landscapes: beaches
lead to the destruction of buildings: houses
contamination
contamination of freshwater reserves
damage to food supply and livestock due to saltwater
reduction of land available to live on: low-lying villages and coastal areas
can force individuals living in these areas to migrate
can force people to live in densely populated areas.
less habitat availability for animals
polar bears
increasing risk of becomeing endangered or extinct
IMPACT ON H+W
Rising sea levels can lead to the destruction of people’s homes, jobs, or livelihoods (e.g. if food crops are destroyed, people can lose their capacity to earn an income). This may lead to individuals having a lower sense of hope for the future and reduce their sense of purpose which often comes from working, negatively impacting spiritual health and wellbeing.
CHANGING WEATHER PATTERNS
the average surface temperature of the Earth has steadily increased
prolonged periods of heat have occurred more frequently
rainfall has become heavier and more intense
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF CHANGING WEATHER PATTERNS
Drying out soil
limit the amount of food that can be grown
negative health effects
heat stroke
heavy rainfall
flash flooding
can damge infrastructure: houses and roads
IMPACT ON H+W
Increased heavy rainfall can lead to more frequent flash flooding. This can create stress and anxiety amongst individuals about their property becoming damaged, negatively impacting mental health and wellbeing.
EXTREME WEATHER EVENTS
increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events and some natural disasters
extreme weather events include:
flooding
drought
cyclones
extreme heat
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF EXTREME WEATHER EVENT
increased risk of related injuries and deaths.
damage to natural landscape and man-made infrastructure.
contamination of natural water reserves.
IMPACT ON H+W
Climate change has led to extreme heat and droughts in some parts of the world. This extreme weather event can negatively impact physical health and wellbeing by reducing the functioning of the body and its systems due to heat stroke from extremely hot weather conditions.
CONFLICT
Conflict: refers to a violent or non-violent clash either within a country or between two or more countries
the number of conflicts globally are currently rising
Conflict also often requires assistance from other countries to provide resources for those who may be injured or displaced
NEGATIVE IMPACTS ON CONFLICT
increasing the number of deaths and injuries.
creating fear, stress, and anxiety.
reducing levels of peace.
forcing individuals to leave their home country, which can lead to mass migration.
severing interpersonal relationships with members of the community due to individuals being forced to flee conflict zones.
damaging homes and other forms of infrastructure, such as schools and hospitals.
IMPACT ON H+W
Living in a conflict zone can disrupt an individual’s ability to live their life, and can sometimes force them to seek shelter or even flee. This can limit how often they see or communicate with their friends, family, and community members, making it more difficult to maintain positive relationships with others and form new relationships, negatively impacting social health and wellbeing.
Conflict can often involve violence and the use of weapons which can lead to innocent civilians sustaining severe injuries, negatively impacting physical health and wellbeing by impacting the functioning of the body and its systems.
MASS MIGRATION
Mass migration: refers to the relocation of a large number of individuals from one geographical location to another
can occur due to:
lack of employment opportunities and financial hardship.
climate change
destruction of homes and infrastructure, which may occur due to natural disasters.
political instability.
the abuse of human rights.
lack of access to resources, such as safe drinking water and nutritious foods.
increases in forced displacement
large groups of individuals have to leave their home, often seeking a life free of persecution, where they can feel safe and lead productive lives
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF MASS MIGRATION
often miss their family and friends from their home country
may find it hard to assimilate into their new country
increased risk of anxiety and PTSD
IMPACTS ON H+W
Those who experience mass migration may struggle to settle into life in their new country, such as finding it hard to secure a job or build connections with those in their community. This can negatively impact spiritual health and wellbeing as they may not feel like they belong in their new community and may lack a sense of purpose.
Individuals who experience forced displacement may have to temporarily stay in refugee camps due to mass migration leading to an excess of refugees in particular regions. Refugee camps often have poor living conditions and can be isolating, negatively impacting emotional health and wellbeing as individuals may be fearful of when they will be able to leave the refugee camp and have a reduced ability to display resilience.
WORLD TRADE
World trade: involves the exchange of goods and services between countries in exchange for financial compensation
World trade has increased over time due to the effects of globalisation and the existence of increasingly positive relationships between countries
Increased world trade allows countries to generate greater incomes
can increase the number of meaningful employment opportunities available and give the government more financial resources
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF WORLD TRADE
very low pay for workers in low income countries
for extremely long hours with no breaks, leading to fatigue and other negative effects
dangerous environments which can pose danger to the workers,
factories that are unstable and may collapse
expose workers to toxic fumes.
Child labour
IMPACT ON H+W
Greater world trade opportunities make it more likely for people within a community to find meaningful employment. This can allow more individuals to earn a decent income, which allows them to financially access resources they need. This promotes mental health and wellbeing by reducing stress caused by being unable to afford resources, such as food and healthcare.
Greater levels of world trade has increased the number of people in low-income countries working in poor conditions. This can negatively affect physical health and wellbeing due to these workers often having to work for long periods of time with no breaks, increasing levels of fatigue and the likelihood of injuries occurring.
TOURISM
Tourism: refers to individuals travelling to locations for personal interest or business reasons
rates of tourism has increased over time
BENEFITS OF TOURISM
more meaningful employment opportunities
greater understanding between different cultures
the preservation of important cultural sites which are valued by local communities
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF TOURISM
tourist attractions often becoming polluted and becoming damaged by large numbers of visitors
pollution due to tourism can lead to water sources becoming contaminated
damages are particularly harmful when the tourist attraction has spiritual or religious meaning to the local population
greater movement of people between countries can enhance the ability for communicable diseases to spread globally
tourist attractions in low-income countries often lack regulations
can increase the risk of morbidity due to injuries
can increse mortality from activities, such as boat rides and hiking
IMPACT ON H+W
Increased levels of tourism can allow individuals to gain exposure to more cultures, potentially reducing prejudices and stereotypes they may hold towards other cultures. This can promote social health and wellbeing by facilitating the formation of new relationships with, and greater levels of empathy for, individuals from other cultures.
Increased levels of tourism can lead to tourist locations becoming polluted which can lead to many ongoing impacts. For example, an increased number of tourists at a beach can increase the amount of rubbish and pollution, which can contaminate the water and lead to the death of fish and sealife. This can negatively impact physical health and wellbeing as it can lead to a reduced availability of food for the local town, reducing their ability to meet their nutritional intake and support the functioning of the body and its systems.
DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES
Maintenance of e-health records
Mobile tsunami warnings
Mobile bushfire and flood warnings
Mobile and internet based fitness and nutrition programs
World Health Organisation SMS alerts for disease control, such as the ebola virus
BENEFITS OF INCREASED KNOWLEDGE SHARING
Easier access to health information for individuals who may be geographically isolated
individuals who would otherwise have to spend a large amount of time travelling to medical clinics can access healthcare from home
can reduce the number of health conditions which go undiagnosed
Can reduce the financial burden of seeking medical advice
as many online health services are free or are much cheaper compared to seeking face-to-face care
may also increase the number of individuals who seek medical care, or maintain medical care
May reduce the strain on healthcare systems
Individuals can check online or digital health resources, such as Nurse On Call to seek clarification as to whether they need to go to a general practitioner or hospital for face-to-face care.
NEGATIVE IMPCACTS OF INCREASED KNOWLEDGE SHARING
Individuals are more likely to access information or advice which may be illegitimate or ill-advised.
this can lead to misdiagnoses
Individuals can also gain health advice from individuals who are not qualified
aking advice from an online blog written by an unqualified person on whether to access vaccinations
some of the information found online stems from conspiracy theories and corrupt studies
Health data can be hacked or distributed in an illegal manner.
compromising the confidentiality and privacy of individuals
IMPACT ON H+W
Sharing knowledge via text messages in times of disaster can reduce devastation in the wake of a disaster. These texts are often sent by government bodies, such as the Department of Health. This can promote physical health and wellbeing as sending text messages for individuals to evacuate in time of a disaster, such as a bush fire, can reduce the experience of illness, injury, and death
Increased access to digital technologies allows all individuals across the world to maintain communication. Therefore individuals can form and maintain relationships with others who they are geographically separated from, promoting social health and wellbeing.
Online health records, such as the My Health Record, can make it easier to access and leak the health information of others. This can negatively impact mental health and wellbeing as individuals who have their health records leaked may be stressed and anxious about people they know becoming aware of medical conditions and/or treatments they have accessed
