12.8 Improving City Governments

Reforming City Governments

The Need for Reform

• Cities and states required significant reform due to:
  • Political machines and bosses: Corrupt entities controlling city politics for personal gain.
  • Unresponsive state governments: Failing to address the needs and desires of residents.
  • Backroom politics: Non-transparent and often corrupt decision-making processes.
  • Voter suppression and intimidation: Voters faced harassment and influence attempts during elections.

Reforming City Governments

• Traditional city government structure:
  • Elected mayor and council, which was often exploited by political machines.
• Galveston, Texas Commission System (1900):
  • Following a devastating hurricane and tidal wave, the existing city government proved ineffective.
  • The state legislature appointed a five-member commission of experts to govern the city.
  • Each commissioner specialized in a specific area and oversaw the corresponding city department.
  • The system proved successful in rebuilding the city and restoring normalcy.
  • By 1917, approximately 500 cities adopted the commission system.
• Dayton, Ohio City Manager System (1913):
  • In response to the mayor and city council's inability to manage the aftermath of a flood, a city manager system was implemented.
  • A trained administrator, the city manager, was appointed to oversee all city services and ensure their efficient operation.
  • The manager reported to the council for guidance and funding.
  • By 1925, over 250 cities had adopted the council-city manager system.
• Traditional System with Honest Leaders:
  • Some cities maintained their traditional mayoral system but elected honest and capable individuals.
  • Hazen Pingree (Mayor of Detroit, 1890-1897):
    • Focused on economic reforms and implemented a fairer tax structure.
    • Lowered public transportation fares.
    • Constructed schools and a municipal lighting plant.
    • Reduced gas rates.
    • Established an unemployment relief system.
  • Samuel M. "Golden Rule" Jones (Mayor of Toledo, 1897):
    • Instituted an eight-hour workday for city employees.
    • Built playgrounds, kindergartens, and a city golf course.
  • Tom Johnson (Mayor of Cleveland, 1901-1909):
    • A socialist who advocated for increased citizen participation in government.
    • Held public forums in circus tents where citizens could question city officials.
    • Appointed competent and honest individuals to city positions.
    • Reassessed property values to create a fairer tax structure.
    • Implemented gas and water socialism, replacing private ownership with public city ownership of public services.

Reforming State Governments

• Robert M. LaFollette (Wisconsin):
  • Served as governor from 1901 to 1906 and led the Progressive movement at the state level.
  • Proposed a railroad commission to regulate freight rates.
  • Suggested a value-added tax on railroad company properties.
  • Advocated for a direct primary system, allowing voters to choose candidates without party constraints.
  • Faced opposition from Stalwart Republicans who resisted change.
  • Formed a coalition with insurgent Democrats to pass direct primary legislation and revise railroad taxes.
  • Traveled across Wisconsin, publicizing the voting records of Stalwart Republicans to encourage the election of more progressives.
  • Attracted national attention, including muckraker Lincoln Steffens, and became a national figure.

LaFollette's Wisconsin Idea

• Championed progressive reforms, including:
  • Workers' compensation system.
  • Railroad rate reform.
  • Minimum wage.
  • Progressive taxation: tax_rate = income \times percentage
    • Taxing higher incomes at a higher rate (progressive taxation).
  • Targeted lobbyists to restrict their influence on politicians and campaign finance.
  • Believed in the judgment of the people when choosing leaders. He also expressed that elected leaders should use skills that the average citizen does not have.

Adoption of Progressive Reforms by Other States

• La Follette's ideas spread to other states, leading to the adoption of:
  • Direct primary laws.
  • Initiative: Citizens could propose laws by gathering signatures to place the proposal on the ballot.
  • Referendum: Voters could approve or reject decisions made by elected officials, often related to spending or policy changes.
  • Recall: Voters could remove an elected official from office through a special election.
  • Support for women's suffrage.
    • By 1915, two-thirds of states allowed women to vote in certain local elections.
    • Around a dozen states granted women full voting rights.
  • Direct election of U.S. Senators:
    • The Seventeenth Amendment (1913) shifted the election of senators from state legislatures to popular vote.

Changes to Voting Procedures

• Problems with Late 1800s Voting:
  • Voter harassment by supporters.
  • Lack of secret ballots.
  • Political parties had different colored ballots, so it wasn't difficult to identify who someone voted for.
  • Voters could be threatened or beaten if voting for the wrong candidate.
• Australian Ballot (Secret Ballot):
  • Progressives supported the adoption of the Australian ballot system.
  • Voters received the same ballot, ensuring privacy.

Conclusion

• Progressives brought more people into the governing process, believing in the American people's ability to do what is right.
• Many progressive era changes are now taken for granted.
• Robert LaFollette's contributions made government more of the people, for the people, and by the people.
• Robert LaFollette: "America is not made, it is in the making… Men must be aggressive for what is right if government is to be saved from those who are aggressive for what is wrong."