EXAM 2

Chapter 8: Carbohydrates

• Alcohol sugars/non-sugar sweeteners: Examples include sorbitol, xylitol, and erythritol. They are used as low-calorie sweeteners.

• Non-sugar sweetener with warning for PKU: Aspartame.

• Amylose and amylopectin: Both are forms of starch. Amylose is a straight chain, while amylopectin is branched.

• Diabetes Types:

  • Type I: Insulin-dependent, usually diagnosed in children/young adults.

  • Type II: Insulin resistance, often linked to obesity.

  • Gestational: Diabetes during pregnancy.

  • Secondary: Resulting from other diseases/conditions.

• Signs and Symptoms of Diabetes: Excessive thirst, urination, hunger, fatigue, blurred vision.

  • Regulation of Glucose: Insulin lowers blood glucose; glucagon raises it.

• Diet Guidelines for Diabetes: Low-carb, balanced meals, regular meals, fiber-rich foods.

• Treatment for Diabetes:

  • Type I: Insulin injections, exercise, diet control.

  • Type II: Diet, exercise, oral medications, sometimes insulin.

  • Gestational: Diet control, sometimes insulin.

• Causes of Insulin Resistance: Obesity, lack of physical activity, genetics.

• Risk Factors/Complications of Diabetes: Obesity, family history, high blood pressure, kidney disease, heart disease.

• Monosaccharides/Disaccharides: Monosaccharides are single sugar units (glucose, fructose). Disaccharides are two sugar units (sucrose, lactose).

• Enzymes that break down disaccharides: Lactase, sucrase, maltase.

• Bond connecting sugar units: Glycosidic bond.

• Types of carbohydrates:

  • Monosaccharide: 1 sugar unit.

  • Disaccharide: 2 sugar units.

  • Oligosaccharide: 3-10 sugar units.

  • Polysaccharide: 10+ sugar units.

• Common polysaccharides: Starch, glycogen, cellulose.

• Storage form of starch in wheat kernel: Starch in the endosperm.

• Soluble/insoluble fiber: Soluble fiber dissolves in water (helps lower cholesterol); insoluble fiber doesn’t dissolve (helps with digestion).

• Health benefits of fiber: Prevents constipation, lowers cholesterol, regulates blood sugar.

• FDA claims for fiber: Reduces risk of heart disease, helps digestion.

• Glycogen: Stored form of glucose in muscles and liver.

• Glycemic response: How quickly blood sugar rises after eating carbohydrates.

• Hormonal regulation: Insulin lowers glucose; glucagon raises glucose.

• AMDR for carbohydrates: 45-65% of total daily calories.

• Location of insulin and glucagon in pancreas: Insulin in beta cells, glucagon in alpha cells.

• Importance of insulin and glucagon: Insulin lowers blood glucose, glucagon raises it.

Chapter 9: Protein

• Structure of protein: Made of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

• Calculate protein:

  • Calories from protein: Grams of protein x 4.

  • Protein needs: 0.8g per kg of body weight.

• Protein complementation: Combining incomplete proteins (e.g., rice and beans) to make a complete protein.

• Complete vs. Incomplete Proteins:

  • Complete: Contain all 9 essential amino acids (e.g., meat, eggs).

  • Incomplete: Lack one or more essential amino acids (e.g., beans, nuts).

• Pepsinogen: Active form is pepsin, helps digest protein in the stomach.

• Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary protein structures: Levels of protein structure from simple chain to 3D folding.

• Functions of protein: Builds tissues, enzymes, hormones, and supports immune function.

• AMDR for protein: 10-35% of total daily calories.

• Excess protein: Stored as fat, or used for energy if needed.

• When protein recommendations are increased: Pregnant women, athletes, sick individuals.

• Vegetarian diets: Lack meat but may still include eggs and dairy. Vegans may lack vitamin B12, iron, and omega-3s.

• Marasmus/Kwashiorkor: Severe malnutrition from protein and calorie deficiency (marasmus) or protein deficiency (kwashiorkor).

• Sickle cell anemia: Genetic disorder that affects hemoglobin, causing red blood cells to be misshapen.

Chapter 10: Lipids

• Structure of fatty acids:

  • Short-chain: Less than 6 carbons.

  • Medium-chain: 6-12 carbons.

  • Long-chain: More than 12 carbons.

• Phospholipids & sterols: Types of lipids important for cell membranes (phospholipids) and hormones (sterols).

• Saturated vs. Unsaturated fats:

  • Saturated: No double bonds (e.g., butter, lard).

  • Monounsaturated: One double bond (e.g., olive oil).

  • Polyunsaturated: More than one double bond (e.g., fish oil).

• Essential fatty acids: Omega-3 (ALA, EPA) and Omega-6 (LA), found in fish, flaxseeds, and walnuts.

• Eicosanoids: Hormone-like substances that regulate inflammation and immune function.

• Cis vs. Trans fatty acids:

  • Cis: Natural, beneficial.

  • Trans: Artificial, harmful.

• Trans fats in food: Added to increase shelf life, but they increase heart disease risk.

• Subcutaneous vs. Visceral fat:

  • Subcutaneous: Under the skin.

  • Visceral: Around organs, more harmful.

• Phospholipids: Amphipathic (hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends), important for cell membranes.

• Pancreatic lipase: Enzyme that digests triglycerides.

• Chylomicrons: Lipoproteins that transport lipids in the bloodstream.

• Fat transport: Short- and medium-chain fatty acids are transported in the blood via albumin; long-chain fatty acids require chylomicrons.

• Cardiovascular disease (CVD) development: Atherosclerosis (plaque buildup) leading to heart attacks or strokes.

• Risk factors for CVD: Smoking, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, lack of exercise, poor diet.

• Symptoms of heart attack: Chest pain, shortness of breath, sweating (differs in women and men).

• Strategies to reduce salt: Use herbs and spices, avoid processed foods.

• Desirable cholesterol levels: Total <200 mg/dL, HDL >60 mg/dL, LDL <100 mg/dL.

• Hydrogenation: Process that turns unsaturated fats into saturated fats, creating trans fats.