Gr 220 Exam 1

Introduction

Definition(s) of Cartography

·        The making and study of maps in all their aspects

·        The art and science of graphically representing a geographical area, usually on a flat surface such as a map or chart. It may involve the superimposition of political cultural or other nongeographical divisions onto the representation of a

Why are standards for Cartography important? (this has been brought up a number of times in lectures)

·        It is important for maps so that they can be read internationally

·        Come back to this

History of Cartography

·        Geometry

o   2,500-2,600 years ago, the Greeks start to create the basics of geometry

o   Can measure things and display them according to scale

o   Longitude and latitude introduced at this time 

o   Some calculated that the earth was a sphere or oval 

·        276 BC - 195 BC - the curvature of the earth was calculated

o   40,250 km earths circumference 

§  4% off from our best measurements today

·        Ptolemy’s map (2nd century ad)

o   Include lat and long

·        Medieval Thinking

o   Combination of geographical experience with religious teachings

·        Globalism = the map renaissance

o   Better tools

§  The use of geometry reappeared 

o   Discipline entered into universities 

§  Chair for geography and cartography at the University of Copenhagen 

·        1536

o   Renaissance started because of the emergence of coffee 

§  Allowed for people to start thinking critically because they weren’t always drunk (beer was safer than water)

·        Enlightenment

o   Reintroduction of science and accurate measurements within maps

§  Thematic maps were introduced to show distribution over space of different types of data = birth of spatial analysis

Relationship between mapping and representation

·        Representation of style and culture in medieval maps?

·        Comeback to this

Importance of each period to cartography:

Ancient Greeks (Geometry); significance of Eratosthenes, and Posiddonius

·        Developed basic geometry to accurately measure things

·        Introduced longitude and latitude

Medieval thinking – melding of geographical experience with religious teaching = church maps; example: importance of Jerusalem

·        Lying with maps, and evil shit? COMEBACK

Renaissance -> Globalism

·        Led to better tools, geometry reappeared in map making, people were beginning to think critically

Enlightenment – (re)introduction of science and accurate measurement

·        Birth of spatial analysis through thematic maps

Importance of the chronometer to cartography

·        Used to determine longitude at sea, allowing for the navigation of the world

Importance of Mercator projection

·        Important as it preserves local direction and shape.

·        However, the poles are shown as much larger than they truly are relative to areas near the equator

Thematic maps were introduced to show distribution over space of different types of data (birth of spatial analysis)

Cartographical modeling – examples of different types of cartographical models (susceptibility maps, suitability maps, habitat maps, least cost path maps, etc.)

·        Susceptibility maps;

·        Suitability maps;

·        habitat maps;

·        least cost path maps;

Relationship between technology and cartography -> what has this taken us to today?

• Each advance has led to a change in cartography 

  • Manual tech

  • Magnetic tech

  • Mechanical tech

  • Optical tech

  • Photo-chemical tech

  • Information age mapping - GIS

  • Future - virtual reality

Geographic Information Science and Cartography

-          Original GIS: maps, documents, analog overlay analysis

o   the 1963 Canada Geographic Information System

NATURE OF CARTOGRAPHY; NATURE OF MAPS

Forms of Representation

              - Graphicacy

              - maps as graphical representation

Need for Maps

              - extends vision, communication

Basic Characteristics of Maps

              - Location

              - attributes

              - reductions

              - geometrical transformations

              - abstractions

Categories of Maps

              - what are the categories of maps?

       - Classed by scale

       - Classed by function

              -             General reference maps

              -             Thematic maps

              -             Charts

       - Classed by subject

Cartographic Representation

Scope of Cartography:

              Collecting/selecting data; manipulating/generalizing data; reading/viewing; responding to / interpreting information

Map Layouts

Margin Elements

Primary Elements

Secondary Elements

Style – what makes a good map?

Style

Context

Arrangement

Where do you put the most important information?

Visual center?

Symmetry

Figure and Ground

Details vs Generalization

Fonts and Colors

Fonts: Selection, modifications, placements

              What is a font

              Serif vs. non-serif – when to use?

              Favored fonts?

              Decorative fonts?

              Right size?

              Spacing

              Color and fonts

              Text placement and direction

Color

              Nature of Color

                             Spectral color

                             Reflected color

              Color dimensions: Hue, Brightness and value, Saturation and chroma

Additive vs subtractive color systems

              Nature of color vision: competing theories – which is most correct? (trichomatic theory, opponent theory); Color constancy

              Color modeling systems

                             CIE system

                             Munsell system

                             Natural color system

              Computer electronic display color  models

                             RGB

                             HLS       

                             HVC

Enhancing design: function of color and pattern in map design

              Promoting figure-ground

              Increasing visual acuity (what is visual acuity)

              Promoting map aesthetics

Symbolizing qualitative features

Hue Conventions

Color Standards

Pattern Conventions/ Standards

Unique and Mixture Hues

Hue-Value Combinations

Symbolic Connotations of Hue

Physiological Limitations – what are they? what is simultaneous contrast?

Symbolizing Quantitative Features

Match color to topic

Hue Progressions

Value Progressions

Hue Guidelines

Value Guidelines

Pattern-Value Guidelines

Enhancing Design Effectiveness

Visual Acuity for Color

Promoting Map Aesthetics

Special color design issues

Geodesy, Datums, Coordinate Systems, Map Projections

Why is it important to know these foundation principles of mapping?

Geodesy – what is it? Why it matters

              Definition?

              Three things geodists work with?

              What is a geoid?

              What is a spheroid? And ellipsoid?  How is one different than the other?
              What is the definition of an ellipsoid?  What is flatness?

              Why are so many different spheroids and ellipsoids used in mapping?

              Does it matter that the ellipsoid you may use doesn’t fit the earth?

Datums

What is a datum?

Which ellipsoid should you use when defining a datum?

              - What is a Horizontal datum?

              - What is a Vertical datum?

The relationship between the ‘earth, geoid, ellipsoid?

Why can it seem that water flows up hill on some maps?

Projections

              What are the three surfaces used in projections?

              What are the six types of projections and what distortions do they fix?

              The difference between secant and tangent projections

              The three different ‘light sources’ used in projections

              What are the area(s) of distortion on a projection

              What are the three orientations of a projection?

              What is a transverse projection? An oblique projection?

              What are standard parallels?

              How do you choose what projection to use?

Coordinate systems

- define a coordinate system

•         Geographic

              - how is it defined? Is it a true grid? What is the prime meridian? Why?

              - what are degree minutes seconds? Decimal degrees?

              - What is the

•         Cartesian

              - what are these?

•         UTM

              Definition?

              Why was this developed?

              How many zones? How wide / long are they? Why are there so many zones?

•         State Plane Coordinate System

              Definition?

              Describe the system, why was it developed?

              What is HARN? HPGN?

•         Military Grid – be able to discuss these

•         National Grids – be familiar with the British and Irish system

What is map scale? How do you define it?

Data types, collection of location data, data quality

Data for maps

What are the different data types?

-          Integer data and floating point data

-          Categorical data: Interval and Ordinal

-          Numeric data

-          Ratio data