Egypt

Pre-Dynastic Period - There were 40 separate city-states ruled by nomarks. Each was independent, they often fought against each other for resources. They existed until the unification of Egypt. Known as nomes. In this era, pit graves were common.

Nomes - Controlled individual city states before the unification of Egypt. Became part of the upper class in unified Egypt. At the end of the middle kingdom, nomes become independent as power is passed from father to son.

Menes/Narmer - Unified upper and lower egypt (upper is south, lower is north).

People of Two Lands - Egypt has two distinct united cultures. The people of upper egypt had a different culture than lower egypt. United under narmer. They were again separated during the first intermediate period when upper Egypt united around Thebes and lower Egypt united around Heracleopolis.

Old Kingdom / First Intermediate

Pharaoh - The king of the empire, viewed as a god living on earth. Pharaoh means “great house.” There are two symbolic objects found in a Pharaoh’s tomb: mace and flail. Mace represents the military role (pharaoh has the ability to act as a god to destroy the enemy). Flail represents prosperity, specifically providing for the people through agriculture (the flail is an agricultural tool).

Egyptian Gods - Egyptians were polytheistic with gods representing animals and nature. Every Egyptian believes that everything you do either adds weight or takes away weight from your heart. When you die, your heart is weighed against a feather, if it is lighter then you go to the fields of green, else you will be devoured by the great beast, this forces the idea that you will be held accountable for your actions, to do the right thing is to follow the pharaoh.

Hieroglyphics - Are pictographic and phonetic. A small percentage of the population was able to write (scribes, nobels, priests). Translated through the rosetta stone (translated hieroglyphics, cerium, and ancient greek).

King Djoser - Commissioned the Step Pyramid at Saqqara, which marked the beginning of the Old Kingdom.

Imhotep - An architect, physician, and chancellor during the reign of King Djoser. He was credited with designing the Step Pyramid. The Step Pyramid was a copy of Djoser’s palace but larger. This was considered the first pyramid.

Pepi II - Ruled for 90 years so there was no clear line of succession after his death. This caused there to be a dispute over power that escalated into a civil war where everyone claimed to be pharaoh.

Great Pyramids - Pyramid at Giza (during Khufu’s reign), Pyramid of Khafre (during Khufu’s son’s reign), Pyramid of Menkaure (during Khufu’s grandson’s reign).

The Egyptian Solar Calendar - Old kingdom astronomers made a great contribution to the science of navigation and formulated the first solar calendar with a year of 365 days. Most other calendars of the time were based on the movement of the moon.

Palettes - Flat, often ornate, objects used for grinding cosmetics and displaying intricate artwork.

Serekhs - Rectangular enclosures in which the pharaoh's name was written, symbolizing a protective structure for the king's name and eventually evolving into the cartouche. Royal names are often circled.

Scarab seals - Small, typically beetle-shaped amulets or seals used in ancient Egypt, often made of stone or faience.

Middle Kingdom / Second Intermediate

Mentuhotep II - Warlord of Heracleopolis (the capital city at the end of the old kingdom), he conquered Heracleopolis and then reunited Egypt, starting the middle kingdom. Claimed royal ancestry to the pharaohs in the old kingdom (last pharaoh was Pepi II), chances are very slim. The middle kingdom was centered at Thebes. Mentuhotep worked to prevent another intermediate period by reducing Ra’s dominance (and funding) by emphasizing Amon as an alternative. He also replaced the nomarchs with Pharaoh appointed leaders to prevent rebellion. Finally, he focused on agricultural improvements instead of monuments (i.e. Lake Moeris).

Amenemhat I - Pharaoh in the middle kingdom, replaced Mentuhotep IV. Moved the capital of Egypt to el-Lisht.

Nubia - Gold trade was established with Nubia during the middle kingdom. This was part of the middle kingdom foreign policy approach focused on increasing trade not control. This in turn increased wealth within Egypt. Standings armies were stationed in Nubia to administer this trade.

Hyksos - Invaded Egypt at the end of the middle kingdom. Egypt had been focused on preventing internal conflicts (between different groups in the priesthood and preventing nomes from seizing power). This moved arms out of the Nile and Nile delta, which left those regions unprotected. The Hkysos gained this territory.

Thebes, Avaris, Kerma - The three groups were not friendly, but very little open conflict. Thebes was the capital of Egypt. The dynasties from the middle kingdom continue to rule. Monuments and hieroglyphics are during the second intermediate period. Avaris was the capital of Hyksos. They have adopted many aspects of Egyptian culture. Kerma was the capital of Kushites/Nubians. Groups coexist and share Nubia’s gold wealth. 

The Israelites - Entered Egypt during the second intermediate period. Hebrews become a community within a community, highly skilled craft and trades people. They had a huge role and influence on the history of Egypt. Egypt was the destination for many different groups, because it was safe, secure and wealthy.

Seqenenre Ta’o II - Pharaoh of Thebes launches an attack against Apepi of Avaris over personal insult/dispute. Went north to arrange a trade agreement between the Hyksos and Egyptians, insults Hyksos gods, and enters war (between Thebes and Avaris). Ta’o dies violently with several axe blows to the face.

 Kamose, Ahmose I - Kamos is Seqenenre Tao son who continues to war with nationalistic and xenophobic motivations. Launches a partially successful assault on Avaris where he dies. Ahmose is Kamose’s brother who destroys Avaris through a 6 year siege. This causes the Hyksos to flee to Syria. Then Ahmose launches a campaign to the south and in Nubia, marking the beginning of the new kingdom.

New Kingdom / Decline

Egyptian Conquests - The new kingdom was very militarized. The goal was to gain territory in the middle east, Israel, Lebanon, Iraq. 

Amenhotep I - Secured Egypt. Occupies oasis as advanced bases and deprived access to others.

Thutmose, Nubian Conquest - Expanded into Nubian territory (nubian conquest). Conquered Palestine and Syria (but cities were well treated). In the cities there was no looting and local rulers and culture remain (sons taken to insure loyalty and train new leaders). Thutmose II has brief and inconsequential reign.

Hatshepsut - First major female leader in history. “Regent” for Thutmoses III. Expedition to Punt (Somalia).

Thutmosis III - Was a warrior pharaoh with a large standing army (use of mercenaries, 5000 men divisions, diversified: infantry, chariots, navy). Lead numerous conquests establish Egyptian control of the surrounding areas (i.e. Megiddo and Joppa). Erased all traces of Hatshepsut.

Akhenaten (aka Amenhotep IV) - Peak of New Kingdom wealth and power, culture was flowering. Akhenaten was remembered from his religious upheaval. He believed in emphasizing one god, Aten the sun god. He changed his name to Akhenaten from Amenhotep IV. He moves the capital city to Amarna. Priests of Amon reject this idea and seek the pharaoh’s downfall. He is reviled and left out of history in most cases.

Nefertiti - The wife of Akhenaten never ruled Egypt but Amenhotep IV had a deep love for her. He built an equivalent tomb for her as for himself. Nefertiti also had very similar power to Amenhotep IV. When she died Amenhotep IV changed his name to Akhenaten.

King Tut (aka Tutankhamen) - Amenhotep’s son is largely controlled by the priests of Amon. Dies young at 18, possibly murdered. His tomb, discovered by Howard Carter, comes to define Ancient Egypt in the world’s consciousness. His death leaves a power vacuum that results in a general coming to power and claiming the position of pharaoh.

Ramesside Kings - The reigns of the later Ramesside kings saw a major increase of the priests and the army. The temples were major owners of land, and the priests profited from this, becoming virtually independent from the central bureaucracy. In particular, the temple of Amon at Karnak became so powerful that it practically controlled Upper Egypt. To defend Egypt’s borders, the pharaohs had built up a powerful standing army. This army was augmented by mercenaries, who were often prisoners of war who had agreed to fight for Egypt.

Ramses II, Kadesh - Last great pharaoh of the new kingdom. Went to attack the Hittite, but was unexpectedly ambushed by the Hittite in the Battle of Kadesh. Ramses used propaganda to cover his failure, instead of Egypt creating new technology (for example an alternative to bronze that would match the power of Hittite iron), Egypt entered stagnation. Initialized large scale building projects (i.e. Abydos, Karnak, Luxor).

Megiddo - The location Ramses II was traveling to to attack the Hittites.

Sea Peoples - Migratory group that taxes the kingdom’s resources. Viciously invaded different societies, including Egypt during the Ramesside Period.

Assyrian Rule, Saite Vassals - Egyptian puppet rulers (at the direction of the Assyrian empire). This marked the decline of the Egyptian empire.

Babylonian Alliance - Babylonia was a loose confederation of Middle Eastern States. Briefly controlled Egypt.. Then chaos and diffuse executive (warlords) control afterwards.

Persian Conquest, Persian Period - This was the first large empire that had a lasting effect in Egypt. Cyrus the Great conquered Egypt but then allowed people to live by their own life without control. His successor, Cambyses, was often drunk and violent. He was very unpopular and caused constant rebellions. Wars with Greece weaken Persian control of the region causing Egypt to break away from Persian dominion. This was followed by a brief period of independent rule under Nectanebo I & II.

Alexander the Great - Conquered Egypt after the Persians. He was a welcomed ruler after the harsh treatment under Nectanebo II (last ethnic “Egyptian” ruler of the territory in Ancient period), he was viewed by the Egyptians as a liberator

Ptolemaic Dynasty - Alexander’s General Ptolemy gains control of Egypt following the Wars of the Diadochi. Egypt was forced to accept “Greekness.”

Cleopatra VII, Mark Antony - Last Greek ruler. Was threatened by Romans, so she made an alliance with first Caesar then with Marc Anthony. Defeated following the Battle of Actium (the end of the Ptolemaic Dynasty).

Ma’at - Stood for the concept of harmony. Alignment with the Egyptian gods was important for their status in the afterlife. Ma’at was a reflection of the current Egyptian social structure. Therefore if there was social mobility, this harmony would be disrupted. Ancient Egyptians would visit temples to ask for favors from gods. They also visited in order to return the favor in the form of valuables. Symbolized 

Ka - a person’s individuality

Ba - a person's soul (lifeforce or energy)

Akh - is a person’s spirit (eternal soul), Ka+Ba=Akh