Eastern Religion traditions

I. Hinduism:

1. The early development:

a. The Aryan and Aryan scriptures:

Aryan: nomadic people

Aryan scriptures: Vedas

Veda: literally means knowledge. The four scriptures originally were orally transmitted

The four vedas: Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Artharva Veda

Rituals was important in Vedic times, especially rites of sacrifice were performed to sustain cosmic order and please the gods. (Note: sacrifice means offerings to god/gods)

Late Vedic period, philosophical innovations began to supplant the older Vedic emphasis on sacrifice. Upanishads, namely, philosophical texts became more widely spread.

b. The gods in Vedas:

Agni: fire god, mediator between human beings and the gods, who brings gods to sacrifice in vedic sacrificial rituals

Shiva: the gods of destroyer

Vishnu: preserver of the universe (avatar/ incarnations: Krisna and Rama)

Brahma: creator

c. The caste system:

Brahmin:  priest

Kshatriya: warrior

Vaishya: merchant, farmer, craftsman etc

Shudra: slave

The first three classes are also called twice-born classes as their boys can have a Upanayana ritual, means sacred thread ritual that symbolizes their second birth in a religious sense and they are eligible for study Vedic knowledge under a guru (teacher)

Outside of the caste system: the untouchable. They are called Harijan (children of God) by Mahatama Ghandi, but they call themselves Dalit (the oppressed).

d. Basic concepts in Vedas:

-Brahman: the underlying essence of the universe, usually translated as the Absolute Truth/Ultimate Reality/the Supreme/ Supreme Being/

Brahman is the supreme, unitary reality, the ground of all Being.

-Atman: the Deep Self, the eternal Self,  essence within each individual. It is successively reincarnated  until released from samsara.

Atman and Brahman are identical, but atman is viewed from an individual perspective, and Brahman is viewed from a collective perspective

Svetaketu and his father’s conversations illustrate the feature of the Brahman, and the relationship between Brahman and Atman through the analogies of things made of clay, river and ocean, etc.

-karma:  originally it means action and deeds, the moral principle of cause and effect. Karma encompasses all kinds of actions, not only physical actions, but also speech and mental actions. A person’s situation in any given moment has been shaped by all previous actions. Karma is the driving force of one’s successive transmigration.

-dharma: means law, duty, righteousness, all of which have to do with living in a way that upholds cosmic and social order.

-samsara: cycle of rebirth

-moksa: liberation or freedom from the cycle of rebirth

 Different opinions on moksa:

 Moksa: freedom or liberation from the bondage of samsara. It marks the end of transmigration and the end of effects of karma. Moksa can mean the union of one’s atman with Brahman, such that no sense of individuality any longer exists. Or it can mean the eternal existence of atman in the company of the supreme God (here the supreme God is manifested by many gods). There are also debates on whether moksa can achieved when a person is still alive or have to wait till one dies.

2. Later development of Hinduism:

a. smrti literature:

-Ramayana: the epic involves in issues of fulfilling one’s dharma in the public, political realm, and in the private, familial realm.

Rama is the example of an ideal man, son and king; Sita is the example of loyal wife, Lakshmana is the loyal brother and Hanuman is the selfless devotee.

-the Bhagavad Gita: the shortened version from the longest epic Mahabharata , which has a great impact on Ghandi

  Three yoga (ways) leading to liberation in the Bhagavad Gita

  Jnana yoga (Knowledge)

  Karma yoga (action), cultivate “desireless action” or acting without attachment to the fruit or benefits of the action

  Bhakti yoga (devotion): which comes to dominant Hindu practice and belief. The path of devotion is available to anyone, regardless one’s gender or caste.  The only requirement is selfless devotion.

3. Hinduism in daily life:

a. Four stages of life:

-Student

-Householder

-Forest-dwelling hermits

-Renouncers (Sannyasi)

b. Four aims of life

-dharma: duty or righteousness

-kama & artha: these two aims apply to the second life stage of householders.  Kama means the fulfillment of desire and artha means pursuit of wealth and social prestige.  Kama and artha should be pursued in accordance with dharma

-moksa: ultimate liberation from transmigration

c. Rites of passages

-Upanayana: sacred thread ritual, initiation ritual for boys of the twice born classes

- Wedding: an initiation ritual for women, somewhat equivalent to upanayana ritual for men. The wedding is sanctified by a fire sacrifice. Offerings are poured into the fire to offer to gods to ask for blessings.

-Death: purify the body, cremation. It is considered to be the last sacrifice.  

III. Jainism:

1.  Jina: conquer, those who conquer one’s desire to achieve final liberation

2. Founder of Jainism: it is believed that there were 24 tirthankaras (fordmakers), Mahavira, the 24^th fordmakers historically existed.  The life story of Mahavira reflect the Jain value of non-harm (ahimsa) and promote ascetic life.

3. Division of Jainism:

    a. Digambara (sky-clad)

    b. Shvetambara (white clad)

4. Three jewels of Jainism: right faith, right knowledge and right behavior

5. Basic concepts:

     a. ahimsa: the central concept of Jainism, means non-violence

     b. jiva/ajiva: life/no-life

         five categories of living things are based on the sense one has

         - The five categories of living things:

        - Five-sensed(hearing, touch, taste, smell and sight): gods, human beings, animal(monkey,    cattle, elephant, parrot, snake…)

        - Four-sensed (touch, taste, smell and sight): Larger insects (butterfly, fly, wasp..)

        - Three-sensed (touch, taste and smell): small Insects (ant, bug, flea..)

        - Two-sensed (taste and touch): worms, shellfish…

        - One-sensed (touch): vegetable-bodies and earth-bodies (stone, clay, minerals), water-bodies (river,  sea rain), fire-bodies (lights, flame), wind-bodies (gases, wind)

     c. loka: place of rebith

        hell, human realm (middle), heaven, crown of the loka (where disembodied jivas reside)

     d. karma: in Jainism, it means “action” as well. All actions involve various forms of matter that weigh down the jiva and thus hinder one’s liberation. Immoral actions that violates the principle of non-violence or other Jain ethical teachings dirty the jiva with heavier impurities. Highly virtuous actions, on the hand bring about only small quantities of light matter that is easy to be removed from one’s jiva.

e. Some scholars label Jainism as “transtheistic” because there are gods in Jainism, but Jainism believes that  one’s salvation relies on one’s own,  not on the power of deity, or the grace of gods.

6.   Sallekhana: ritual fast to death by gradually reducing intake of food or liquid. This is a common practice within Jain community. Jains do not think this is committing suicide. Not only monastics, but also laity practice Sallekhana. This practice is believed to be auspicious, and can help one to remove one’s karma.  

IV. Sikhism:

1. Sikh: learner/ disciple

2.  Gurus:

     a. Ten human gurus:

         Founder: Guru Nanak 

     b. 11^th guru: Granth Sahib (Adi Granth), the scripture

3. Basic concepts:

    a. God: Akal Purakh (Timeless one), Formless One, Vahiguru (the Supreme guru)

    b. human nature:

haumai: “I”ness, self-centered pride, self-reliance and ignorance of one’s reliance on God

        manmukh: bound to ego

    c. hukam: divine order, all-embracing principle, to submit oneself to hukam, the divine order means to remove one’s egotism

 4. Sikh identity:

 five “k” markers:

kes: uncut hair

kangha: comb

kach: short breeches

kara: bracelet

kirpan: sword

5.practices: congregational and individual worship, singing hymn plays an important role in worship

Congregational meals: renouncing caste system

V.Chinese Cosmology:

  1. Nature: in Chinese is called Ziran, means  self so, nature

    - In Chinese cosmology,  the cosmos operates according to its own law. The law is not given by an outside law giver. 

    2.  Features of the law that regulating the operation of the universe

            -Cyclical process: eg. rotation of day and night, rotation of the four seasons

-Progress of growth and decline: eg. the rising and fall of the tide, the waxing and waning of the moon

Bipolarity: Yin/ Yang

The bright part represents Yang, the dark part represents yin

Features of yin and yang:

 Yin and yang are two opposite principles or forces that make up of all the things in the world. The two interact with each other, complement each other and depend on each other. They can transform into the opposite of its original self.

3. Wu xing: (five basic elements/agents):  water, wood, fire, earth and metal

            4. Ways to know the Operation of the Universe

            -Yi jing/I-ching (Book of Changes): a divination manual

Two basic gua/kua (hexgram):

qian/ch’ien (male/yang) & kun/k’un (female/yin)

 _____     ___ ___   

-Fengshui (literally means wind and water, geomancy): the layout and location of         one’s residence or the tombs of one’s ancestor can impact one’s fortune

The principle of geomancy: the balance of yin and yang;  the smooth movement and preservation of qi (vital force)

Eight characters and individual destiny:  one’s destiny can be decided by the year,    month, day and time of one’s birth. The year, month, day and time are represented      by eight Chinese characters.

VI. Confucianism:

1. Confucius: (transliteration of Kong Zi, master Kong)

Confucius’ Self-perception: a teacher, transmitter and preserver of the teachings of sages in antiquity

Sage kings/rulers in the antiquity that Confucius admired: King Wen, King Wu, Duke of Zhou

2. Five Confucian Classics:

Book of Poetry

Book of Change (divination manual revealing  the operation of the cosmos)

Book of Documents (classics of history)

Book of Rites 

Spring and Autumn Annals (ancient Chinese Chronicle)

3. Basic concepts in Confucianism:

li: rites, norms of behavior, propriety, decorum, li can morally transform people, or instill moral qualities in a person, to enable one aware of his/her social position, to discipline oneself. Confucius believed that li could bring order to the society by morally transforming people.

Five Cardinal relationships: ruler-subject, husband-wife, father-son, older brother-younger brother, friend-friend.

zhengming: rectification of name. Everyone knows his/her position in the society and acts according to his/her position entitles him/her to do and fulfill what they are supposed to do.

Filial piety: devotion to one’s parents or ancestors. Filial piety not only means one should take care of the material needs of one’s parents, but also should have right attitude when one serve one’s parents or ancestors.

Junzi: morally perfect person. Idealized person.

ren: humane, benevolent. A humane person overcome his/her selfish interest to put other people’s benefit before him/her. A humane person should

Ideal ruler/government: rule with li, rule by virtue, rulers should be moral examples for the subjects to follow.

Dao/ Tao in Confucianism: moral and social order, moral truth; the appropriate way to do things

VII. Daoism/Taoism

1. Dao de jing

Legendary author: Laozi/Lao-tzu (Old Master)

Dao/Tao: the Way, cannot be described by language. Dao is the source of everything, and makes things as they are. Dao is associated with simplicity, naturalness, spontaneity and full of potential.

Wu wei: literally means non-action, in Daoism it means doing nothing against the Dao (Way), let things follow its own natural course.

2. Zhuangzi/ master Zhuang

Zhuangzi  and the major themes in Zhuangzi:

Freedom: free oneself from the formula of behavior, free from artificial constrains and open up one’s mind and make room for spontaneous and natural response to occur.

Relativism: nothing is absolutely good or bad, desirable or undeniable. It depends on perspectives and contexts.

Dao: Zhuangzi emphasis on that the Dao determines the particular way of the cosmos to operate and the nature (inborn qualities) of each individual. It makes all things equal and transcends all the conventional distinctions.

Wu wei in Zhuangzi: doing nothing against the Dao, no action based on any purposeful motives of gain or striving, avoiding conflicts and obstruction and finding a way to fit the constrain to act at ease and effortless.

Xinzai (Mind fast): free oneself formulaic way of thinking, free from man-constructed standard

VIII. Buddhism

1.     Buddha: means the enlightened/awakened one

2.     Buddha and his enlightenment

Siddhartha Gautama realized the inevitability of suffering after he encountered old age, death, sickness and a renunciate. He left his family to begin his spiritual career to find out the way to end suffering. He achieved enlightenment through practice meditation and adopting the Middle Path.

3.     In his first sermon, the Buddha talked about Middle Path (namely, avoid extreme austerities and indulgence in sensual pleasure) and the Four Noble Truths.

4.     The Four Noble Truths: suffering (birth, old age, sickness, death etc, and suffering of grasping five skhanda, five skhanda means five aggregates, including form, feelings, perception, thought formation, consciousness ), cause of suffering (caused by craving), end of suffering, the way to end suffering (eightfold path).

5.     Eightfold path:

a.      Jnana (wisdom, discernment): right view and right resolve

Right view: opposite to Hinduism, Buddhism believes there is no permanent self (anatman).

Sunyata: emptiness, means empty of a permanent self.

b.     Sila (virtue): right speech (no false speech, avoid harsh speech, divisive speech and frivolous talk), right action ( no killing, no lying, no stealing, no sexual misconduct, no intoxication, or the five precepts) and right livelihood (avoid any occupation that harms human beings or animals, such as occupations involved in trading in weapons, alcohol, poison, meat or human beings should be avoded.)

c.      Samadhi (concentration): right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration (meditation)

6.     Basic doctrines:

a.      Karma: action, deeds, driving force of one’s transmigration

b.     Transmigration: six realms of existence (the low-level realms: residents of hells, hungry ghost, and animal; the high-level realms: human being, demi-god, and god)

c.      Nirvana: blow out/transcend the cycle of birth and death (samsara), liberation from suffering