AP World History Review

Short Checklist & Advice

• Read Mr. Harmon’s book from page 31 to 67

• Watch Heimler’s History

  • Link to playlist:

• Do practice tests

• For the multiple choice, there will be two OBVIOUS wrong answers; one will be in the wrong time period and the other will just be wrong

  • You will most likely be stuck between two choices, yet ONE of them will not answer the question fully

  • Look for words like "all,” “never,” and “always,” as they will probably be wrong

Chapter 8 (1200-1450): Commerce

Vocabulary:

• Silk Roads

  • General definition: Vast networks of land-based commerce throughout Eurasia that flourished from 1200; linked agricultural peoples, such as eastern Russia and Central Asia, to larger civilizations, like China, India, and the Middle East; important because of their economic impact, spread of religion, but also disease

  • Peaked under the Mongols, because thieves were so afraid of them

  • Land-based routes

  • The Silk Roads were like a RELAY RACE (it was NOT one long journey)

  • LUXURY GOODS were traded on the Silk Roads

  • Camels were commonly used

  • China monopolized silk products until it got distributed

    • Symbol of wealth, used as currency, associated with religion

    • Affected all individuals in China, as it changed the self-sufficiency of local regions

  • Buddhism and Hinduism spread to merchants

    • Being apart of a particular religion was beneficial

    • Religion spread and affected people on trade routes and oases, but not smaller areas

    • Religion changed because of trade, becoming more materialistic

  • Buddhism picked up some of the cultures of other civilizations

  • ALL RELIGIONS MUST ADAPT TO LOCAL CONDITIONS

  • Diseases: Smallpox, Measles, Bubonic Plague

    • Serfdom disappeared

    • Long-term outcome: European colonization of Americas

• Indian Ocean trade network (Sea Roads)

  • General definition: An expansive sea-based system of material and cultural exchange that stretched from southern China to eastern Africa through the Indian Ocean; involving the Chinese, Malays, Indians, Arabs, and people in the Mediterranean basin and Southeast Asia; picked up significantly during the postclassical era; notable because of its ability to reduce transportation costs and carry more goods, while also connecting people of different cultures and environments

  • Sea-based routes

  • Cheaper cost compared to Silk Roads because ships can carry more

  • BULK ITEMS (cows, lumber, olive oil, perfume)

  • NOT LUXURY GOODS

  • Affected by ENVIRONMENT because of monsoons

  • Christianity introduced to Ethiopia and South India

  • Political revival of China (Song Dynasty) → Chinese products in commerce and technological innovations

    • ex: compass, lateen sails

  • Rise of Islam

    • Good business to convert to Islam because of Arabian Empire expansion

  • Affected Southeast Asia and East Africa the most

• Sahara trade network (Sand Roads)

  • General definition: Important pattern of long-distance trade that connected North Africa and the Mediterranean to the peoples of West Africa; stretched across the Sahara, significantly transforming, impacting, and refining West African civilization while simultaneously connecting it to the broader patterns of world history

  • North Africa and Mediterranean world with interior west Africa

    • North Africa = manufactured goods

    • West Africa = copper, gold, salt, slaves, kola nuts

      • More agricultural

  • Camels introduced to North Africa and Sahara

    • North African Arabs crossed Sahara for gold (in West Africa)

    • Sahara no longer a barrier to trade and cultural diffusion because of camels and caravans

• Srivijaya

  • General definition: A result of the rivalry between Sumatra and the ports along the Malay Peninsula; Malay kingdom that exercised strong control of the Indian Ocean trade through the Strait of malacca; from 670-1025; monarchs employed Indians who worked as officials and counselors, making it an important example of a kingdom with cultural blending

  • Grew rich by taxing strait of Malacca, a chokepoint

  • Indian culture and religion impacted Southeast Asia the most

• Swahili culture

  • General definition: Predominant within a set of city-states located along the East African coast, from present-day Somalia to Mozambique, that emerged in the 8th century; as part of the larger Indian Ocean world, this East African culture included Arab, Indian, and Persian merchants, as well as Bantu-speaking Africans; heavily impacted by Islam and the Indian Ocean trade network, Swahili culture holds great significance in demonstrating how these factors affected East African cultures and economies

  • East African civilization

  • Cities grew tremendously through Indian Ocean commerce and rise of Islam

    • Diaspora

    • Higher demand for East African products

  • COASTAL CITIES

  • Independent city-states that had competition with each other

  • Traded goods in the interior and exchanged them for foreign goods

  • Culturally diverse (Indian, Arabian, Persian, Chinese)

  • Became Islamic

• Great Zimbabwe

  • General definition: Powerful state in southeastern Africa that possessed great resources and labor power; strategically located inland between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers, it was connected to the growing trade in gold to the coast; peaking between 1250 and 1350, Great Zimbabwe serves as an important example of the Indian Ocean trade and its transforming power

  • Southeastern Africa

  • Known for gold trade to Swahili Coast (more interior)

  • Great labor force and wealth

• Ghana, Mali, and Songhay

  • General definition: Wealthy states, empires, and city-states with monarchies, military forces, and trade-taxing systems that reached from the Atlantic coast to Lake Chad in West Africa; the peoples of western and central Sudan constructed these groups between c. 500 and 1600; due to their positions as influential and important civilizations, Ghana, Mali, and Songhay are significant because of their abilities to benefit from trans-Saharan commerce and become immensely wealthy and powerful

  • Stateless societies in the sense that there was no clear border

  • Western and central Sudan people

  • States, empire, and city-states

  • MONARCHY

  • Slavery in West Africa

  • Wealthy from taxing trade

• Trans-Sahara slave trade

  • General definition: Slave trade was an exchange of sub-Saharan men and women across the Sahara desert, with most slaves working in Islamic North Africa and some in Europe from 1100 and 1400; famous Muslim traveler Ibn Battuta is said to have taken Mali women to Morocco, exemplifying a movement of people across the desert as slaves; while most slaves were used in West African civilization, the Trans-Sahara slave trade holds great significance, marking the development of the slave trade across the Sahara

  • Men and women brought to North Africa from West Africa

General ideas:

• Monopolization of certain goods

  • China: silk

  • Southeast Asia: spices

• Different regions have different goods, which motivate trade

• Afro-Eurasia and Americas

• Trade is significant because economically it changed the production of goods and imports/exports

  • ex: West Africa’s importation of salt

  • Ended the economic self-sufficiency of local societies

• Trade changed society and it hierarchies, where merchants moved up the ranks

  • Continuity: elites distinguished themselves through luxury goods

• The debate over whether or not trade should be privately controlled or government controlled arose

• Trade also meant the spread of cultures, religion, innovations, and diseases—not just goods

  • ex: Buddhism and Hinduism spread from India to Central and East Asia

  • ex: Black Death spread through trade

• Saddles were a technological innovation

• Currencies developed

• Americas:

  • Lack of transportation vehicles and animals

  • Panama made it hard to exchange products between North and South America

  • Corn was traded still because it does not rot as quick

  • Modest trading network

  • Severe geographic differences

  • Mississippi River area had trade

  • Mesoamerica = Aztecs, Andes = Incas

    • Trade within regions, not between

    • Aztecs = private traders, Incas = state-run

  • Mayan trade = luxury goods

Chapter 9 (500-1300): China & East Asia

Vocabulary:

• Song Dynasty (when? features of)

  • General definition: Regarded as a “golden age” of China due to its educational reform, emphasis on scholarship, the rise of Neo-Confucianism, the creation of lasting political state structures, industrial production of iron, and technological innovations; defined by these influential and positive features, China’s prosperity during the Song dynasty energized domestic and Eurasian commercial life and economic markets

  • China was super powerful and influential

    • Korea, Vietnam, and Japan are influenced

  • Confucianism: philosophy, all about rules, honor

    • Chinese dynasties rise and fall, but Chinese societies remain rock solid

    • Confucian scholars ran governments

    • Most efficient government/bureaucracy then

  • Religion in China: Neo-Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism

  • China is also influenced by Buddhism

  • Grand canals built

    • Hand-dug, good for trading

  • Great Wall

    • Protect against northern nomads

  • Chinese government gave rewards for innovations and new inventions

    • Printing, books, compasses, ship-building, gunpowder

      • Most direct effect of printing = books

  • Big population accredited to Vietnamese rice (Champa rice)

    • Food allows population to grow

  • Tax on trade

    • Paper money currency

  • Mandate of Heaven: heaven determines who the emperor is and how long the dynasty lasts

• Features of China’s economy in the Song Dynasty

  • General response: During the Song Dynasty, China’s economy flourished due to an agricultural and technological revolution that made it the far richest, skilled, and populous country in the world; the use of paper money and industrial production not only contributed to the commercialization of Chinese society but also the facilitation of global commerce, which increased wealth; people started producing for the world market, rather than for local consumption, which was significant in advancing China’s society

• Foot-binding (what and significance of in China’s history)

  • General definition: A practice that involved tightly wrapping young girls’ feet by breaking the bones and causing pain; this widespread practice was significant in China’s history because of its position as an explicit example of the power of the patriarchy and the pressure of Confucian values on gender; originating in the tenth or eleventh century during the Tang Dynasty, it tightly restricted women and warped perceptions of female beauty and submission

  • Patriarchal society

  • When a dynasty is stronger and newer, women’s rights and Buddhism tends to go down

    • Confucianism

  • Patriarchy was a way for emperors to maintain their legitimacy

    • Legitimacy: how you KEEP your power

  • Foot-binding showed elite status

    • Tiny feet means you were not working in the fields

    • Kept women separated and obedient

  • Song Dynasty was somewhat positive for women, because they got property and inheritance rights

• Tribute system (what and significance of)

  • General definition: Set of practices that required non-Chinese authorities to acknowledge Chinese superiority and their subordination; significant in shaping foreign relationships and maintaining Chinese dominance, where foreigners had to perform the kowtow and present their tribute to be granted access to China’s prosperous markets; successful with Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, and Japan, but not always with the northern nomads, who demanded payment in exchange for protection against incursion

  • Attempt at regulating relationship with northern nomads, Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, and Japan

    • Goes both ways and often seemed to work

    • Xiongnu and Uighurs demanded Chinese goods for protection, but Chinese believed they were blessing barbarians

      • These groups of people actually adopted Chinese culture

• Xiongnu (& China’s relationship with the nomads)

  • General definition: An early nomadic confederacy established around the same time as the Han dynasty that reached from Manchuria to Central Asia; was one of the large and powerful nomadic empires that was able to deal with China on almost equal terms and performed devastating raids and incursions, resulting in political recognition, promise of princesses in marriage, and supplies of commodities

  • China had intense interactions with northern nomads

  • Nomads focused economy on livestock and horse-riding

    • Occasionally created big states

    • Needed goods from China

      • Sometimes traded, sometimes attacked

  • Nomads said China as the the threat, not themselves

  • China needed Nomads because their horses were needed, including the nomads’ access to amber and fur

    • Frenemies; mutual need

• What was the status of Buddhism in China over time?

  • General response: Incredibly flux; entering China during the first and second centuries, it was not very popular due to its contradictions to Chinese cultural and Confucian understandings; later, the collapse of the Han Dynasty and China’s later reunification under the Sui and early Tang dynasties allowed Buddhism to become permanent and favored in Chinese society and religion; despite heavy resentment, criticism, and dismantlement of its wealth and foreign origin, Buddhism never vanished but rather helped reformulate Confucian thinking and Chinese culture

  • Chinese became nervous about foreign influence and how much they accepted

    • Western things = bad

• To what extent (in what ways and how much?) did China influence other peoples in East and Southeast Asia by c. 1300?

  • General response: China greatly influenced other peoples in East and Southeast Asia, such as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam; regarding religion, all three nations were impacted by Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism; politically, Chinese court life and governmental techniques such as the examination system were either incorporated or sought after; furthermore, Chinese culture, which included art, architecture, clothing, and food consumption, was integrated and assimilated into the societies of peoples in East and Southeast Asia; however, their influence was limited, as unlike the native peoples of southern China, who largely became Chinese, the peoples of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan did not; the three nations kept their distinctive identities, political independence, and own language

  • China and Korea:

    • Tribute missions provided Korean rulers with legitimacy

      • Came back with Chinese goods

      • Kids sent to China

      • Buddhism and Confucianism modeled after/borrowed

      • Official language became Chinese, independent language was Hangul

      • Chinese influence usually affected only the elites

      • Korea remained Korea

      • Women had a lot of rights in Korea, but this disappeared after China and Confucianism

  • China and Vietnam:

    • Borrowed from Confucianism, Daoism, Buddhism, and examination system

      • Similar to Korea

    • Vietnam rice/Champa rice spread to China

    • Adopted a Chinese style agricultural technique

    • Trung sisters

      • Women in Vietnam had more status

  • China and Japan:

    • Japan had an advantage because it was geographically separated

      • Never invaded

    • Japan selected what they wanted to borrow

    • Continuity: Japanese assimilated elements from China into their own distinct civilization

      • ex: Zen Buddhism

• To what extent was China influenced by other peoples in East and Southeast Asia by c. 1300?

  • General response: China was hardly influenced by other peoples in East and Southeast Asia, especially Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, because of their role as a wealthy, powerful, and advanced society; they were the ones who were impacting the more subsistent and smaller neighboring countries through their technological innovations, complex cultural practices, governmental systems, and religious teachings; however, China too was changed through its engagement with the wider world; despite being more of a Chinese-influenced society, Vietnam’s fast-ripening and drought-resistant strains of rice made productive rice-based agriculture available in southern China, doubling the nation’s population and thus marking a turning point in Chinese history

Chapter 10 (500-1300): European Christendom

Vocabulary:

• Byzantine Empire (aka Eastern Roman Empire)

  • General definition: The new, eastern political entity of the Roman Empire that enclosed much of the eastern Mediterranean basin; with some historians believing that its origin dates back to around 330 CE, this civilization sought to preserve the legacy of the classical civilization and the Roman Empire; the Byzantine Empire was a key player in the world of Eurasian commerce that also interacted intensely with its neighbors and exerted political, religious, and cultural influence

  • Claimed to be Roman

  • Housed Eastern Orthodoxy

  • No starting point, seen as a continuation of the Roman Empire

  • Included Egypt, Syria, Greece, and Anatolia

  • Wealthy, urbanized, and cosmopolitan compared to the West

  • Had access to the Black Sea and controlled the Mediterranean

  • Strong army, navy, and merchant activity

  • Feared contamination from “barbarians”

  • Never as big as the Roman Empire, but still huge

  • Key player in Eurasian trade because of its geographic position

    • Traded jewelry, gemstones, silk, technology

• Constantinople

  • General definition: Defensible, heavily walled city of the Byzantine Empire that was founded 330 CE; located in modern-day Turkey, it was to be the “New Rome,” serving as the capital, a continuation of the Roman Empire in the East, and a site of passionate Christian culture; defined by its remarkable churches, relics, and religious icons, but also its fear of foreign contamination

  • 1453: Constantinople falls to the Muslim Turks

    • Renamed Istanbul

    • Very violent takeover

    • Christians panic, thinking they would not be able to trade through Constantinople from the East

      • Causes them to look to the Atlantic Ocean

  • Political authority was highly concentrated in Constantinople

• (Eastern) Orthodox Christianity

  • General definition: Branch of Christianity that developed in the Byzantine Empire around the 11th century; an important, pervasive influence on every aspect of Byzantine life, legitimating the rule of the emperor and providing a cultural identity for the empire’s subjects; in contrast to its western counterpart, Eastern Orthodox Christianity used Greek as its language, allowed priests to grow beards and marry, and fiercely rejected the idea of Roman popes being the only and final authority for all Christians everywhere

  • Patriarch

  • Influenced Russia

  • Greek based

• Kiev

  • General definition: Emerging in the 9th century CE, Kiev was the most prominent city of a modest state known as Kievan Rus, located in modern day Ukraine; to unify the diverse people of his region, Prince Vladimir of Kiev chose Eastern Orthodox Christianity as the main religion; the long-term significance of his decision on Russian history was that it brought this civilization into the world of Orthodox Christianity

  • Russia becomes Christian

  • When Constantinople fell, Moscow decided to be the “third” Rome

• Holy Roman Empire

  • General definition: Began around the 10th century as the new, western political identity of the Roman Empire; under leaders such as Charlemagne and Otto I, it included parts of what is now France, Germany, Belgium, Netherlands, and Italy; despite it seeking to revive the idea of a unified Roman authority in the West, the Holy Roman Empire was characterized by its decentralized and fragmented structure influenced by Roman and Germanic elements

  • More rural and not as glamorous as Byzantine Empire

  • Decentralized and had competing states that declared war and conquered each other

  • About 300 kingdoms with the Pope as the head

• Roman Catholic Church (and its significance in Europe 1200-1450)

  • General definition: The branch of Christianity that was deeply embedded in the Holy Roman Empire; had a hierarchical organization of religious members, used Latin as the language of the church, provided a basis for the conversion of Europe’s pagan people, and gave legitimacy to the powerful and wealthy; during the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church was significant because of its order of the Crusades, religious influence, and political power

  • Centered on the pope, independence from political authorities

  • Latin based

  • Included Italy to West

• Crusades

  • General definition: Beginning in 1095, the Crusades were a series of religious wars that defined the imagination of Western Christendom and its religious passions; areas such as the Islamic Middle East, Iberian Peninsula, Byzantine Empire, Russia, Spain, Sicily, and more were impacted by Western crusading; these “holy wars” were a pervasive feature of European expansion and demonstrated an advancing capacity for expansion, organization, finance, transportation, and recruitment

  • Causes of Crusades:

    • Economic

    • Political

    • Religious

  • Crusader states became trading sites (goods from East and controlling it)

  • Christian territory → Muslims take over → Christians take it back

  • LAND IS POWER

  • Mixed results

    • In the long-run, Christians lost politically, but gained a lot from crusading

      • Trade with Muslims

      • Expanded trade between East and West

      • Economic and cultural boom

  • Spain also pushed all the Muslims out and took land back

    • Reconquering of Spain/Reconquista

    • Spanish Crusades

    • 1492

    • Money for kicking out Muslims was used on Columbus

    • Jews were also kicked out

• Long-term consequences of the Crusades in Europe (p. 444)

  • General response: Unlike the lack of lasting impact in the Middle East, the Crusades had very significant long-term consequences in Europe; Spain, Sicily, and the Baltic region were permanently brought into the world of Western Christendom, while the Byzantine Empire was further weakened because of its detrimental effects on Constantinople; while Crusading also created cross-cultural contacts that opened roads of trade, technology transfer, and intellectual exchange, it also solidified cultural barriers between people; the rift between Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism deepened further

  • LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF CRUSADES:

    • Led to the Renaissance

      • Muslim scholars preserved Greek and Roman writing

    • American discovery

      • Curiosity about land and goods were evoked by trade with Muslims

      • Before, Europeans did not care for exploring

• Reasons for growth of cities in this era 

  • General response: Cities in the Middle Ages (1000-1300) showed tremendous growth because of greater security, stability, and peace, but also a warming trend that enhanced agricultural production; increased production associated with agricultural expansion revived long-distance trade that had slowed as a result of the Roman collapse; self-sufficient communities also became increasingly commercialized, causing swift urbanization in Europe; technological innovations and the introduction of productive labor divisions called guilds also contributed to the growth of cities in this era

• Rise of Universities in Europe 

  • General response: Universities in Europe, such as Paris, Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, and Salamanca, began to rise and dramatically change after 1000 CE; Western Europe’s development of a legal system that guaranteed a degree of independence for institutions like universities, gave scholars an area where they could pursue their studies without the full control of religious or political authorities; in a religious aspect, Christians wanted to provide a rational foundation for faith, resulting in learning becoming heavily associated with Christian devotion as well

  • Italy had the first university because it is a peninsula in the Mediterranean Sea

    • Got cultural borrowing first from Muslim societies

• Answer this: In what ways did cultural borrowing shape Europe after c. 1000? (p. 446)

  • General response: Cultural borrowing shaped Europe after c. 1000 in many different ways, including technology, knowledge, and culture; despite their belief in Christianity as the one true religion, Europeans embraced the Arabs’ scientific ideas and business practices, pagan Greeks’ philosophical and artistic ideas, and India’s mathematical concepts; China was also a major source of indirect European technological borrowing, introducing innovations like the compass, paper-making, gunpowder, nautical technology, iron casting, and more; these technologies had to adapt to local European conditions and were consequently accompanied by independent innovation as well; by 1500, Europe’s technological advancements allowed them to catch up with and even surpass China and the Islamic world

General Ideas:

• Christianity provided a measure of culture similarities for western Eurasia

• 1054: Split in Christian churches over authority of pope and trinity

  • Eastern Orthodox

  • Roman Catholic Church

• Spain is Muslim at this time

• Feudalism: system of survival in Europe and Japan

  • Little kings who have land

  • Knights as protectors

  • Serfs working on the land (they were TIED to the land, not their “masters,” making it different from American slavery)

• Manorialism: whole farming system (crop rotation)

• More food = more people

  • Similar to the Champa rice in China’s Song dynasty

• Vikings and Muslims attacked Christians

• Opportunities for women grew in the Middle Ages (1200)

  • Economic opportunities

  • They could be a mother, nun, or a prostitute

  • 1400—new technology using windmills take over women’s occupations

• Bread was a staple in the diet

• European civilizations had lots to catch up on and learn

  • Europeans were willing to learn

    • Happy to engage and borrow from eastern civilizations

    • Similar to Japan, West Africa, Russia

    • Eventually catches up and surpasses China

• Europe was very similar to India

  • Politically disunited

  • Competing state

• Europe had city-states

  • ex: Venice

Chapter 11: Islam (600-1500)

Vocabulary:

• Quran

  • General definition: Muhammad’s revelations and teachings that became the sacred scripture of Islam; regarded as the very words of God and the core of their faith by Muslims, presenting Allah as the only God; denouncing polytheism and social injustices; and promoting a community of all Islamic believers; main message is surrendering to the divine

• Muslim

  • General definition: A term for a person who converted to Islam and experienced spiritual transformation; the countless individuals and societies within the Arab Empire that believed in Allah and the message of his prophets became Muslims; became increasingly attractive to convert to Islam as the Arab Empire continued to flourish and offer a variety of benefits for Muslims; however, as various peoples and cultures started to interact and integrate, being a Muslim meant following the Sharia and participating in the creation of an Islamic society

• 5 Pillars of Islam

  • General definition: A set of requirements for believers that summarize the core message of the Quran; arising from a religion that originated in the Arabian Peninsula, the pillars each represent something different: the monotheistic nature of Islam; the necessity of prayer five times a day in the direction of Mecca; almsgiving and supporting the poor and needy; a month of fasting during Ramadan, and a pilgrimage to Mecca known as the haji

• Hijara

  • General definition: Muhammad and his followers’ emigration in 622 CE to Yathrib/Medina, an agricultural settlement of mixed Arab and Jewish population; moved to this more welcoming town after being intensely opposed by Mecca's elite families; was a critical turning point in early Islamic history, as it marked the beginning of a new Islamic calendar

• Sharia Law

  • General definition: Body of law that reflects the lack of distinction between religious and civil law in the world of Islam; developed by religious scholars in primarily the 8th and 9th centuries, Sharia Law made Islam distinct from other religions; addresses every aspect of religious and social life, offering guidance for prayer and ritual cleansing; marriage, divorce, and inheritance; business and commercial relationships; the treatment of slaves; political life; and much more

• Caliphate

  • General definition: A political-religious state that is ruled by a caliph, the successor, protector, and defender of the faith to Muhammad as the political leader of the umma; following Muhammad’s death in 632, there were multiple caliphates, including the Umayyad and the Abbasid Caliphate; regarding caliphs, the first four were known as the Rightly Guided Caliphs, until division struck between the Sunni and Shia Muslims. 

• Abbasid Caliphate

  • General definition: (750-1258) a new Arab dynasty that flourished culturally and economically following the overthrow of the Umayyads; new capital was Baghdad, where the Abbasid caliphs ruled over the Islamic civilization; heavily Persian-influenced, which was seen through the language of the elites, poetry, painting, architecture, and court rituals; however, the political unity of this caliphate did not last long as the Islamic world politically fractured into a set of sultanates.

  • Abbasid Empire and Baghdad

    • House of Wisdom

      • Big university

      • Scientific and astrology based

      • Writing books and translating Greek and Roman literature

      • Fell to Mongols in 1258

• Sikhism

  • General definition: The new and distinct religious tradition that emerged in India during the early sixteenth century; founded by Guru Nanak, it blended elements of Islam, such as devotion to one universal God, with Hindu concepts, such as karma and rebirth

  • Hybrid religion of Hinduism and Islam in northern India

    • Religious syncretism

  • Hindus are okay with all religions because all paths lead to God

• Ibn Battuta

  • General definition: An Arab Moroccan and a Muslim traveler; while visiting Anatolia during the fourteenth century, he recorded to his dismay how women were respected by the Turks, held a more dignified position, and did not veil themselves; in addition to Anatolia, Ibn Battuta visited the West African empire of Mali, where he was appalled that Muslims in Mali allowed their women to appear in public almost naked and mingle among unrelated men

  • Islam in West Africa:

    • Ghana, Mali, Songhay

    • Polytheistic to Islam from trade through North Africa

    • Ibn-Battuta was shocked because women were very devout Muslims, yet walked around topless and could teach other women

    • Normal culture before Islam, adapting local culture

    • West Africa was not tolerant of other religions

      • Islam’s enemy was polytheism during this time

  • Ibn-Battuta shocked at Morocco/Turkey because women were shown respect and were not veiled and dressed differently

    • Cultural difference

• “House of Wisdom”

  • General definition: Established in 8th century by the Abbasid caliph al-Mamun, a poet and scholar with a passion for foreign learning; was located in Baghdad as an academic center for research and translation of scientific, medical, and philosophical texts from ancient Greece and other parts of the world to Arabic

• Similarities between Islam, Christianity, and Judaism

  • General response: These three religions share a common monotheism and prophetic tradition; ritual prayer and cleansing ceremonies; fasting; divine revelation; and the ideas of heaven, hell, and final judgment; originating in the Middle East, Islam, Christianity, and Judaism have sacred scriptures and believe that God revealed himself to Abraham as well

• Sunni and Shia

  • General definition: Out of the conflict of who should hold the role of caliph, one of the deepest and most enduring rifts within the Islamic world emerged; on one side were the Sunni Muslims who believed that the caliphs were political and military leaders that should be selected by the Islamic community; on the other side were the Shia Muslims, who strongly believed that the leader of the Islamic world should come from blood relatives of Muhammad; even though it was simply a political conflict, the problem became more significant and even addressed issues of religious authority, causing issues and armed revolts among various Islamic states and divisions among the Shia

  • Islam is very divided

    • Sunni vs. Shia Islam

    • Muhammad died → Who should take over?

      • Blood-related or elected?

• Delhi Sultanate

  • General definition: Established in 1206 after the Turkic and Islamic conquest of India; Turkic rule became more structured, but their small numbers and internal conflicts allowed only a modest impact on Indian society; Sultanate stretched from northwestern Punjab and Sid to eastern Bengal; Muslim communities began to emerge, especially in regions that were less under Hindu influence, as it was appealing to people in lower castes and people who wanted to avoid the tax on non-Muslims

• Ottoman Empire

  • General definition: The most impressive and powerful state of the Islamic world encompassing much of the Byzantine Empire and southeastern Europe by 1500; its foundatiosn originated from Turkic-speaking migrants penetrating Anatolia and the Byzantine Empire, converting both of these civilizations from Christianity into Islam

  • Islam in the Ottoman Empire:

    • Large minority of Christians and Jews

    • Largely Muslims

    • Even though Islam is from Arabia, it adapts to Turkish language

    • Turks in Ottoman Empire

    • Muslim Turks ran the empire, but used Muslim Persians to run the country

      • Persians influenced the culture and art

• Muslim “Agricultural Revolution” 

  • General definition: Resulted from the expansion of Islamic civilization, which contributed to the diffusion of agricultural products and practices; Muslim conquest of Northwestern India introduced the Middle East to South and Southeast Asian crops such as rice, sugarcane, hard wheat, bananas, cotton, fruits, and more; these new crops and improved agricultural techniques that accompanied them caused the increased food production, population growth, urbanization, and industrial development seen in early Abbasid times

  • Ibn-Battuta shocked at Morocco/Turkey because women were shown respect and were not veiled and dressed differently

    • Cultural difference

• What is the difference between Muslim Caliphate and a Muslim Empire?

  • General response: A Muslim Caliphate specifically refers to a Muslim state ruled by a Caliph, the religious and political successor and leader to Muhammad; some examples include the Umayyad Caliphate and the Abbasid Caliphate; however, a Muslim empire is a political entity that may not necessarily be led by a caliph; it is more of an emphasis on the power of the state than on religion; an example is the Ottoman Empire; overall, a caliphate is associated with religious leadership under Islamic principles, while a Muslim empire focuses on territorial and political power, with more or less of a religious influence

  • Caliph = religious leader, emperor = political leader

General Ideas:

• Dar al-Islam: “Everywhere Islam is”

• Location: Saudi Arabia

  • Mecca, Medina

• Islam spread all across Afro-Eurasia through conquer and trade

• Arabian Peninsula started off as nomadic tribes with polytheistic religions

• Christian and Jews are mentioned in the Quran to leave them alone (people of the book)

• In India, Islam had to include Hindus as people of the book because there were so many of them

  • RELIGIONS MODIFY AND ADAPT

• Muhammad: Greatest/superior prophet

  • Very holy, considered almost one step under Allah

  • Merchant that was influenced by Christians and jewish merchants

• Muslims originally supported gender equality

  • As Islamic states grow stronger, women often lose their rights

  • Women had to veil themselves → patriarchy

    • An act of “restricting” women’s lust

• Islam, like Christianity and Buddhism, allowed women to have more opportunities in religious life

• Islam spread very quickly by the sword and non-Muslim tax

• Trade routes created pockets of Islam in China

• Jihad = holy war against people who would not covert, especially people who were polytheistic

  • Similar to Crusades

• Caliphs changed from local leaders to absolute monarchs

• Sufis: more emphasis on emotion and feeling

  • Not very popular with mainstream Muslims

  • Not strict with following the Quran

  • Pretty big movement

• Islam was a minority religion in India, but the religion of the ruling class

• Ottoman Empire vs. Northern India:

  • Ottoman Empire was much smaller than northern India, so it was easier to convert

  • Christians were a large minority in the Ottoman Empire

    • Had to accommodate

    • Did not have to convert

• Spain taken over by Muslims (before the Reconquista):

  • Did not overwhelm Christianity (had to pay taxes though)

  • Missed Middle Ages drama because of Muslims

  • Prosperity, high culture

  • Arabized Christians

  • Christians begin reconquering Spain in the north

    • 1492

    • Pushed Jews and Muslims out of Spain

    • Spirit of Crusades

    • Left over money used on Christopher Columbus

• Abbasid Dynasty declined

  • No Islamic empire

• Islam just became more cultural and powerful

• Technology spread (qanat, irrigation system)

Chapter 12 (1200-1500): Mongols & Nomads

Vocabulary:

• Pastoralists

  • General definition: Nomadic group of people that provided an alternative lifestyle in the Afro-Eurasian world, often disdaining the agricultural way of life, while simultaneously staying connected to and dependent on them; centered their economies around herds of animals and left a significant impact on the regions they interacted with; traded for food and luxury goods, sometimes forming alliances to engage with powerful agricultural and urban societies; offered women more status and freedom than many settled cultures; their ability to thrive in challenging environments emphasizes their important role in history

• Xiongnu

  • General definition: A large nomadic empire in the classical era, located in the Mongolian steppes north of China; in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE, they formed a powerful military confederacy in response to Chinese expansion, creating a centralized political system with divinely sanctioned leaders; extracted tribute from other nomadic peoples and from China, forcing the Han dynasty to recognize them as equals; although they eventually fell under Chinese pressure, their model influenced later Turkic and Mongol empires

• Turks

  • General definition: Diverse group of nomadic tribes from Mongolia and southern Siberia who created powerful empires between 500 and 1500; formed alliances under a leader called a Kaghan and interacted with nearby civilizations like China and Persia through raiding and trade; their conversion to Islam helped spread the faith and established them as important carriers of it as they moved into the Middle East; served as slave soldiers in the Abbasid caliphate but eventually created the Ottoman Empire after gaining political power; transformed from pastoral nomads into rulers of agrarian societies, adopting Islam

• Chinggis Khan

  • General definition: Genghis Khan, born Temujin in 1162, was a universal ruler who rose to power despite a difficult childhood as a social outcast; known for his military successes and a reputation for being generous to friends but ruthless to enemies, he was recognized as Chinggis Khan in 1206 when the Mongol tribes united under him; built a vast empire that included China, Korea, Central Asia, Russia, much of the Islamic Middle East, and parts of Eastern Europe; united the Mongol tribes and created a strong army focused on expansion.

• Extent of Mongol Empire

  • General definition: The extent of the Mongol Empire was the largest land-based empire in history, stretching from the Pacific coast of Asia to Eastern Europe; connected the nomadic peoples of the inner Eurasian steppes with the settled agricultural civilizations of outer Eurasia like never before; brought major civilizations—Europe, China, and the Islamic world—into closer contact, facilitating significant exchange and communication, though often accompanied by great destruction; despite these connections, the Mongol Empire left only a modest cultural imprint, with no new religion or civilization emerging from its conquests

  • Mongols were the largest land-based empire

    • Religiously tolerant

    • Wanted to collect goods

  • 1209—Mongol conquests begin

    • Persia, Russia, tries to take over Europe, did not really conquer Korea (tribute relationship), fails to take over Japan

• Yuan Dynasty

  • General definition: Founded by the Mongols in China, ruling from 1271 to 1368; took a Chinese dynastic title, marking a new chapter in Chinese history; moved their capital from Karakorum in Mongolia to a new city in Beijing, called Khanbalik, establishing themselves in a sophisticated civilization; adapted to Chinese culture and government, but were still harsh and exploitative; brutal rule prompted a stronger commitment to Confucian values and efforts to remove all traces of Mongol influence from China

• “Golden Horde”

  • General definition: Mongol khanate that existed from the 13th to the 15th centuries; controlled Russia and was based in modern-day Russia and parts of Kazakhstan; played a vital role in the political landscape of Eastern Europe, influencing trade routes and spreading culture and technology; dominated and exploited Russia through tributes and taxes; helped shape the development of the region and contributed to the rise of Moscow

  • Mongols and Russia:

    • Mongols slaughtered everyone when they get to Russia, so Russia avoids being conquered by making a deal with the Mongols (tribute system)

      • Russians are not killed in return for goods

      • Golden Horde

      • Mongols enslaved so many Russians → where the term “Slavic” comes from

      • Russia did not recover for while

      • Russians actually adapted Mongols’ weapons, court practices, etc…

      • 1480—Russians run out the Mongols

• Black Death–and how connected to the Mongols?

  • General definition: Catastrophic epidemic that swept across Eurasia in the 14th century; originated in Central Asia and was spread along the trade routes of the vast Mongol Empire; first erupted in 1331 in northeastern China and quickly reached the Middle East and Western Europe by 1347; rapid spread resulted in millions of deaths, leading to significant population decline, weakened cities, and a decrease in trade throughout the Mongol Empire; largely born from the extensive networks established by the Mongols.

  • Mongols on trade and Bubonic Plague:

    • Tight grip on Silk Roads actually led to the spread of the Bubonic Plague

    • High density populations hit the worst

    • Black Death got rid of serfdom and gave women more opportunities

  • ALL EMPIRES FALL FROM INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL PRESSURE

    • Internal strife opens up invasion from the outside

General Ideas:

• Mongol seizure of Baghdad/Persia:

  • Very violent

  • Mongols actually become Muslims and farmers after the seizure of Persia

  • Persians believed that the barbarians became civilized

• Why Mongols were successful:

  • Superior technology

    • ex: compound bows, ponies

  • Tactics

    • ex: tricked enemies

  • Small army but very mobile

  • Psychological warfare

  • Incorporated conquered people into their military force

• Why Mongols were able to rule:

  • Religious freedom

  • Used non-Mongol rulers

  • Adapted some local customs

• Mongols were stopped at Ain Jalut by the Ottoman Egyptian slave soldiers (Mamluks)

• Mongols start to decline after gunpowder empires start to rise (ex: Ottoman Empire)

Chapter 13 (1400): Overview of the 15th Century World

Vocabulary:

• Timur (Tamerlane)

  • General definition: Timur was a powerful Turkic warrior who attempted to restore the Mongol Empire during 1370-1406. Born in present-day Uzbekistan, he led a ferocious army that devastated regions including Russia, Persia, and India, similar to the destruction of Chinggis Khan. He died in 1405 while preparing for an invasion of China, but his descendants remained in control over the area between Persia and Afghanistan, creating a culture that blended Turkic and Persian influences. His conquests represented the last significant military success of nomadic peoples from Central Asia.

• Ming Dynasty

  • General definition: During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), China recovered from the disruptions of Mongol rule and the Bubonic Plague, removing foreign influences and promoting Confucian learning instead. Emperor Yongle significantly contributed to this revival by sponsoring a vast Encyclopedia, relocating the capital to Beijing, and commissioning the Forbidden City and the Temple of Heaven. Politically, the Ming Dynasty reestablished the civil service examination system and centralized power in the emperor and loyal eunuchs. Culturally, China looked to the past, working to restore agriculture and trade. As a result, China flourished economically and became one of the most prosperous civilizations of its time.

  • Ming Dynasty:

    • Religions: Neo-Confucianism, Daoism, Buddhism

    • Booming economy

    • No more Mongols, dislikes foreigners

    • Built lots of cities and temples, reestablishing legitimacy

    • Builds canals and reforests

    • Reestablishes Song Dynasty ideas

• Zheng He

  • General definition: From 1405 to 1433, the Muslim eunuch Zheng He led Chinese fleets that embarked on seven significant voyages to ports in Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and East Africa, aiming to establish Chinese power and control over foreign trade in the Indian Ocean region. On one of the voyages, Zheng He erected a tablet on Ceylon honoring the Buddha, Allah, and a Hindu deity. However, the voyages ended abruptly in 1433 following the death of Emperor Yongle, as Chinese authorities lost interest, viewing them as a waste of resources led by despised eunuchs. As a result, these maritime journeys faded from China’s historical memory despite their scale and ambition.

  • China begins a maritime adventure

    • Huge fleets

    • Tribute, prestige, scientific discovery

    • Zheng He—Muslim

      • Had 300 ships and thousands of people

        • Different than Columbus, who only had 3 ships and 70 people

    • Bamboo sails with red silk flags

    • Zheng He’s voyages were eventually cancelled after being considered a waste of money

    • Wanted to exert Chinese superiority in trade

• European Renaissance

  • General definition: The Renaissance, a renewed cultural blossoming from 1350 to 1500, was similar to the revival of Confucian ideals in Ming dynasty China. Originating in Italy, it celebrated classical Greek traditions, with wealthy elites seeking inspiration from ancient art and literature to surpass earlier works. Artists like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael began to produce more naturalistic portrayals of the human body. Humanists explored secular topics such as politics alongside religious themes, challenging the otherworldliness of Christian culture. The focus on individualism and worldly affairs marked the beginning of a more capitalist economy driven by private entrepreneurship.

  • European Renaissance:

    • Made Europeans curious about the Outside world

    • The Chinese “Renaissance” would be the Ming Dynasty, where both societies were returning to pre-Mongol values

    • Europe returning to Greek and Roman roots after Crusades

    • Renaissance means rebirth of art, literature, philosophy, etc…

    • Renaissance art has four features:

      • Youth

      • Secular

      • Nature

      • Individual matters

    • People begin signing their names on arts and start creating portraits

    • Religious themes still endured, but secular themes creeped in

    • Renaissance → exploration of New world

      • God, glory, goods

• Fall of Constantinople

  • General definition: The fall of Constantinople in 1453 marked the end of Christian Byzantium and allowed Ottoman rulers to see themselves as successors to the Roman Empire. This event led to  the rise of the Ottoman Empire, one of the most impressive and enduring Islamic states. Turkic warrior groups migrated into Anatolia, and by the mid-15th century, the Ottomans had established a state that included much of the Anatolian peninsula and even into southeastern Europe, gaining a significant Christian population in the process.

• Safavid Empire

  • General definition: In 1501, another Islamic state, the Safavid Empire, emerged in Persia. Led by Turkic leaders from a Sufi religious order founded by Safi al-Din, the empire's long-term significance lay in its decision to forcibly impose Shia Islam as the official state religion. which gained popular support and shaped the unique identity of Persian culture. This created a sharp divide in the political and religious landscape of Islam, but also gained popular support and eventually defined the identity of Persian culture. For a century, periodic military conflicts between the Ottoman and Safavid empires arose, reflecting territorial and religious differences.

• Songhay Empire

  • General definition: Flourishing from 1464 to 1591, the Songhay Empire was a large and influential African kingdom. It was the most recent and largest in a series of states that operated at an important intersection of the trans-Saharan trade routes, generating revenue through taxing commerce. While Islam was primarily limited to urban elites in the beginning, Songhay became a major center of Islamic learning and trade. This empire represented an Islamic state in the African frontier of an expanding Muslim world.

• Timbuktu

  • General definition: Timbuktu, a prominent city in the Songhay Empire, was described by the North African traveler Leo Africanus as a center of knowledge and commerce and a home to Muslim religious teachers, judges, and scholars. It served as a significant center for the exchange of manuscripts and books from North Africa. Famous for its wealth, Timbuktu attracted rich merchants and large numbers of traders seeking luxury textiles from Barbary and Europe. Overall, Timbuktu had become one of the largest and wealthiest cities in the world, playing a crucial role in the empires of Songhay and Mali.

• Mughal Empire

  • General definition: The Mughal Empire, established in the early 16th century by an Islamized Turkic group that invaded India in 1526, governed a largely non-Muslim population, much like the Songhay Empire. It unified most of the Indian peninsula and created a rare period of political unity that later influenced British colonial rule. Early Mughal emperors created policies that blended diverse Hindu groups with various Muslim communities, exemplifying how Muslim rulers could accommodate their immense Hindu subjects, similar to the Ottomans with the Christians.

• Malacca

  • General definition: Malacca, strategically located between Sumatra and Malaya, transformed from a small fishing village to a significant Muslim port city during the 15th century. It became a flourishing center for commerce, attracting trade from all different kinds of nations. Malacca also served as a springboard for the spread of Islam throughout the region, even though its practice was blended with local Hindu and Buddhist traditions. The city also had a reputation for "rough behavior," but nevertheless emerged as a hub of Islamic learning, drawing students from across Southeast Asia, similar to Timbuktu.

• Aztec Empire

  • General definition: The Aztec Empire, flourishing in Mesoamerica from 1345 to 1521, was established by the Mexica people, who founded their capital, Tenochtitlán, on an island in Lake Texcoco. This semi-nomadic group developed a strong military and formed alliances to expand their influence, resulting in a diverse empire with a population of 5 to 6 million. Conquered peoples were required to provide substantial tributes of textiles, food, and luxury goods to Tenochtitlán, a vibrant city known for its canals and marketplaces. While human sacrifice played a central role in their religious practices, the Aztecs largely allowed conquered populations to keep their customs as long as tribute was paid.

  • Aztecs = Mexico

    • Human sacrifice

      • Blood kept gods happy

    • Tenochtitlán: capital, city inside lake

    • Pochteca: merchant class, took place for sacrifices

    • Emperor = god

• Inca Empire

  • General definition: The Inca Empire (1438-1533) flourished along the Andes Mountains and became the largest imperial state in the Western Hemisphere, incorporating cultures such as the Chavín, Moche, and Nazca. Spanning about 2,500 miles and possessing around 10 million subjects, the empire was governed by a divine emperor and a bureaucratic system of provincial officials. The Incas required their subjects to learn Quechua and acknowledge Inca deities, yet allowed them to maintain their own religious practices. Instead of tribute, the empire relied on a labor service known as Mita, where households worked for the state in exchange for communal support and feasts. This government structure permeated daily life and economic relationships far more intensely than in the Aztec Empire.

  • Incas = Andes

    • Human sacrifices sometimes

    • Had socialism type society

      • Mita system: counting system

    • Quipu: counting system

General Ideas:

• There were still people that were living as cavemen

• Agricultural villages used huts

• As usual, China was united and Europe was divided

• Portugal leads the way

• Islamic world—Ottoman Empire, Safavid Empire (Iran), Mughal Empire (India)

• Aztecs and Incas crumbled after Spanish conquer, but was already crumbling

• Japan: weak emperor, military leaders, soldiers (samurais)

• Mughals claimed decent from the Mongols

• Reconquista is finished by the 15th century

• Russia had Ivan the great, who pushed out the Mongols

• When Chinese quits the maritime adventures, Portugal begins

• European legitimacy = Divine Right of Kings

• Delhi Sultanate turns into the Mughal Empire

• Italy has monopoly on trade in Mediterranean sea

• Prince Henry the Navigator: tries to go down Africa thinking that it was not that big

• Vasco de Gama: brought back nutmeg after going to India

• Spain tries to explore after noticing Portugal

• Columbus thought the whole world was Afro-Eurasia and that going West would lead you to Japan

• Ottoman Empire:

  • Land-based empire

    • aka gunpowder empire

  • Janissaries

    • First big army since Roman Empire

Chapter 14 (1450-1750): Empires and Encounters

Vocabulary:

• The Great Dying:

  • General definition: The Great Dying was the dramatic decline of Native American populations following European contact in the 15th and 16th centuries. This collapse was largely caused by the introduction of diseases such as smallpox, measles, and influenza, which destroyed indigenous communities that had no prior exposure or immunity. The resulting epidemics led to widespread death, significantly altering the social and cultural landscape of the Americas. This event emphasizes one of the most devastating consequences of European colonization on indigenous populations.

• What caused the Great Dying?

  • General definition: The Great Dying was caused by the lack of acquired immunities to Old World diseases, such as smallpox, measles, typhus, influenza, malaria, and yellow fever of Native Americans due to long isolation from the Afro-Eurasian world and the lack of most domesticated animals.

• What were two consequences of the Great Dying?

  • General response: Two significant consequences of the Great Dying were the catastrophic loss of life among Native American populations and the resulting labor shortages in the Americas. In some regions, indigenous peoples experienced population declines of up to 90%. Areas such as the Caribbean, central Mexico, and North America were impacted. This collapse not only devastated indigenous societies but also created opportunities for European colonizers and enslaved Africans to fill the void, significantly reshaping the social and economic landscape of the Americas.

• Columbian Exchange:

  • General definition: The Columbian Exchange refers to the transfer of plants, animals, people, and diseases between the Americas and the Old World through European colonization. Europeans introduced crops like wheat and sugarcane to the Americas while animals such as horses and cattle thrived in this new environment. In return, American food crops like corn and potatoes significantly boosted populations in Europe and Asia. This exchange not only reshaped environments but also impacted global economies, contributing to the rise of European dominance and laying the groundwork for the Scientific Revolution. Ultimately, the Columbian Exchange established a new Atlantic world that interconnected four continents and changed the course of history.

• New Spain:

  • General definition: New Spain was a colonial territory established by the Spanish in the early 16th century after conquering the Aztec and Inca empires, which provided access to wealthy and densely populated regions. It featured major cities, universities, and missions, creating a social order that mirrored Spanish hierarchies while incorporating diverse racial and cultural groups, including indigenous peoples and mestizos. The economy relied on commercial agriculture and silver and gold mining, primarily using forced native labor. Despite European dominance, New Spain was defined by a more fluid and culturally blended society than the racially rigid colonies in North America.

• Peninsulares:

  • General definition: Peninsulares were individuals born in Spain who immigrated to the Americas, often as descendants of the original conquistadores who aimed to protect their status and privileges against immigrant newcomers. They held a privileged position in colonial society, viewing themselves as superior to other social groups.

• Creoles:

  • General definition: Creoles were individuals of Spanish descent born in the Americas who resented the superiority of the Peninsulares, or those born in Spain. Despite sharing a similar heritage, creoles often felt marginalized in colonial society, being excluded from the highest positions of power and privilege held by the Peninsulares. They formed a distinct social class within the colonial hierarchy.

• Mestizos:

  • General definition: Mestizos were individuals of mixed Spanish and indigenous ancestry, emerging as a distinctive population in colonial Mexico and Peru, who were initially from unions between Spanish men and Indian women. This group grew in number over the colonial era, eventually becoming the majority in Mexico by the 19th century. Despite their contributions as artisans and officials, mestizos were often viewed with disdain by Spaniards, who considered them illegitimate due to the lack of "proper" marriages. Over time, mestizo identity blurred racial distinctions between Spanish and indigenous peoples, playing a significant role in shaping the cultural identity of modern Mexico.

• Mulattos:

  • General definition: Mulattos were individuals of mixed Portuguese and African ancestry in colonial Brazil. While cross-racial unions accounted for only about 10% of all marriages, informal relationships and the use of concubines led to a substantial mixed-race population. Mulattos played a crucial role in the urban skilled workforce and served as supervisors in the sugar industry. Over time, Brazil saw the emergence of up to forty distinct racial groups, each reflecting various combinations of racial heritage.

• Settler Colonies:

  • General definition: Settler colonies were established by the British in regions like New England, New York, and Pennsylvania during the 17th century, as they sought to create new communities in the Americas. Unlike the earlier Spanish and Portuguese, who encountered established civilizations, the British found less desirable lands considered "leftovers" of the New World. These colonies were predominantly European, characterized by small-scale farming and a lack of racial mixing. British settlers, seeking to escape their old world and find religious freedom, made a unique culture that emphasized local self-government and religious diversity, leading to elected assemblies that challenged royal authority.

• Qing Dynasty:

  • General definition: The Qing Dynasty, or Manchu Dynasty, ruled China from 1644 to 1912 and greatly expanded the country's territory by incorporating the diverse peoples of Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet. Originating from Manchuria, the Qing maintained their ethnic distinctiveness by forbidding intermarriage with Han Chinese, while adopting Chinese language and governance techniques. Their military campaigns from 1680 to 1760 were driven by security concerns, transforming China into a Central Asian empire. Despite their conquests, Qing officials generally respected local cultures and governed through regional notables rather than Chinese settlement, significantly transforming the land-based trade dynamics in the region to sea-based.

• Mughal Empire:

  • General definition: The Mughal Empire, established by Turko-Mongol invaders from Central Asia, united much of the South Asian peninsula under a Muslim-ruled political system from the early 16th to the 18th century. It created a complex relationship between Hindus and Muslims, characterized by cultural blend and significant conflict. Under Akbar, the empire became a center of artistic and literary exchange, translating works across cultures while accommodating a diverse population. However, under Emperor Aurangzeb, a shift towards Islamic supremacy oppressed many Hindus, leading to increased unrest. This internal strife, along with heavy taxation for military campaigns, ultimately weakened the empire and opened the way for British colonization in the 18th century.

• Akbar:

  • General definition: Akbar, the most famous emperor of Mughal India, ruled from 1556 to 1605 and is remembered for his policies of religious tolerance and cultural accommodation. Recognizing the significant Hindu majority, he married Rajput princesses without requiring conversion to Islam and incorporated many Hindus into the political-military elite. He got rid of the jizya tax on non-Muslims and established a House of Worship for intellectual discussions among diverse religious representatives. He even created a new state cult that blended elements of Islam, Hinduism, and Zoroastrianism, emphasizing loyalty to the emperor and fostering a cosmopolitan culture within the Mughal Empire.

• Devshirme:

  • General definition: Devshirme was a process used by the Ottoman Empire in which Balkan Christian communities were required to surrender a quota of young boys. These boys were taken from their families, taught Turkish, converted to Islam, and trained for roles in civil administration or elite Janissary military units. While this practice was devastating for families who lost their children, it also provided a pathway for social mobility within the Ottoman Empire, as many of these boys rose to prominent positions in society.

General Ideas:

• Land-based empires:

  • Qing Dynasty/Manchu Dynasty

    • Last dynasty of China

    • Became a Central Asian Empire by conquering Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet

      • Did not try to make the people there Chinese or tried to flood them with Chinese settlers

  • Mughal Dynasty

    • Gunpowder empire

    • Fragile control because India was divided

    • Division between Hindus and Muslims

    • Akbar: Mughal Emperor

      • House of Worship

      • Accommodated

  • Russia

    • Expands into Siberia

    • Local people died from diseases too

    • Many Russians moved into Siberia and became the majority

    • Russification of Siberia

    • Became multiethnic

    • Knew about Siberia, but the sea-based empires did not

  • Ottoman Empire

    • Europe, Middle East, North Africa

    • Lots of cultural blending

    • Jews were welcomed

    • Turkic and Muslim

    • Islamic and Christian

  • ANY EMPIRE MUST CONQUER PEOPLE THAT ARE NOT THEM

• Sea-based empires:

  • Portuguese gets Brazil and sends many ships to Africa

  • Spain and Portugal fights over land, goes to Pope, and draws the Line of Demarcation

• Europeans were strong, but Natives were also weak

  • European advantages:

    • God, goods, glory

    • Guns

    • Diseases

    • Europeans were successful because they had sailing technologies

      • ex: compass, rudder, lateen sails

  • Native Americans disadvantages:

    • Only had canoes

    • Lack of technology prevented them from expanding

    • No metals and gunpowder weapons and horses

    • Division within

    • WERE NOT EXPOSED TO DISEASES

      • Europeans did not spread disease on purpose

• Europeans in 1300 were threatened by the Muslims/Ottoman Empire, which motivated them to spread Christianity

• Effects of Europeans in the Americas:

  • The Great Dying

  • Columbian Exchange:

    • Old to new: people, pigs, horses, cows, sugarcane, diseases, rice, wheat, gunpowder

    • New to old: corn, tomatoes, potatoes

  • Africans were brought in as laborers because the Native Americans refused to work and died out

    • In contrast to common beliefs, this was NOT because of racism, but African rulers sold out their own people

• Africa’s population went down, but it would have been much worse without corn

• Spices came from the New World

• Silver and gold mines from Peru fueled transatlantic and transpacific commerce

• Europeans, through their colonies in America, changed the global balance

• Mercantilism: silver and gold

  • Joint business working with a government system, where they used colonies to get raw materials, then process and sell these manufactured goods to the colonies

    • Kept colonies dependent on Mother Colony

  • Led to Capitalism

• Spanish conquistadors did not bring women when they first go to the Aztecs and Incas, which is why they began mixing with Native women

• Casta system: Spanish hierarchy

  • Peninsulares

  • Creoles

    • Creole elites, minority

  • Mestizos

    • Majority

  • Slaves and Natives

• Brazil had tons of African slaves because of sugar cane

  • Sugar is a cash crop

  • Average African in the Caribbean lasted 3 years

• Settlers colonies: whites were majority (French, Dutch)

  • North America

• All European colonies brought Christianity and European culture, used the colonies, and followed mercantilism

  • In contrast, Spanish and Portuguese were the most interested in converting to Christianity, while French and Dutch cooperated with locals

  • Spanish and Portugal were linked to the royals, while English were more loose

Chapter 15 (1450-1750): Global Commerce

Vocabulary:

• Indian Ocean commercial network:

  • General definition: For centuries, eastern goods flowed into the Mediterranean through the Middle East from the vast Indian Ocean commercial network. It involved diverse ethnic and religious participants. The Portuguese, seeking to join this trade, found that European goods were unattractive to Asian markets. However, they also realized that the merchant ships in the Indian Ocean were lightly armed, and the Portuguese used their superior naval power to establish a trading post empire across the region.

• Trading post empires:

  • General definition: A "trading post empire" refers to a system established by the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean, where they sought to control regional commerce rather than large territories or populations. Using their military superiority, the Portuguese established fortified bases at key locations such as Mombasa, Hormuz, Goa, Malacca, and Macao. They aimed to dominate trade, particularly the spice trade, by requiring merchant ships to purchase passes and pay duties, while also disrupting traditional trade routes. Despite their efforts, the Portuguese never fully controlled the spice trade and eventually assimilated into the local trading networks. By 1600, their empire was in decline, as local Asian powers and other European nations began to resist their dominance.

• Philippines:

  • General definition: The Philippines is an archipelago in Southeast Asia first encountered by Europeans during Ferdinand Magellan's 1519-1521 expedition. Spain, aiming to rival Portugal’s spice trade, established colonial rule in the late 16th century, naming the islands after King Philip II. The region, with diverse peoples and weak chiefdoms, was of little interest to China or Japan, making it an ideal target for Spanish control. Spanish rule introduced Christianity, making the Philippines Asia's main Christian outpost, and imposed tribute, unpaid labor, taxes, and land estates. Despite some resistance, the Philippines thrived under Spanish governance, becoming a key player in global trade, especially with China.

• British East India Company:

  • General definition: The British East India Company, established in the early 17th century, competed with the Dutch and displaced the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean. The British focused on India, where they established key trading settlements in Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras. They gained control of the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf, but could not match the strength of the Mughal Empire, so they relied on permission, payment, and bribes as the admission price to the Indian market. Initially focused on spices, British merchants shifted to Indian cotton textiles and used their profits to buy Asian goods. Over time, the Company evolved into a form of colonial domination in India.

• Dutch East India Company:

  • General definition: The Dutch East India Company, established in the early 17th century, competed fiercely with the British East India Company and displaced the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean. With a stronger military and economy than the Portuguese, the Dutch focused on controlling the spice trade in Indonesia, monopolizing the production of cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, and mace. Using force, the Dutch seized control of spice-producing islands, devastating local populations and replacing them with Dutch planters who exploited slave labor. The Company’s profits soared, and by the late 17th century, they shifted to bulk goods like pepper, textiles, and later tea and coffee. Over time, their trading empire evolved into a form of colonial domination in Indonesia.

• Potosi:

  • General definition: In the 16th century, the city of Potosí, located in modern-day Bolivia, emerged around one of the world’s largest silver mines in the Andes. Attracting thousands of people due to the silver rush, Potosí grew to 160,000 residents, making it the largest city in the Americas. While the European elites enjoyed luxury goods from Asia, Native American miners endured horrific working conditions, leading one priest to call the city a "portrait of hell." The silver from Potosí played a key role in fueling global trade, especially in China, where demand for the metal soared.

• “Soft gold:”

  • General definition: Soft gold refers to furs, which became a major item of global trade in the early modern era, alongside silver, textiles, and spices. Due to its role as a major supplier of fur to Western Europe and the Ottoman Empire, the profitability of the fur trade drove the Russian Empire's territorial expansion into Siberia. This greatly enriched both the state and private merchants, but it also led to the harsh exploitation of native Siberians and the serious depletion of local wildlife. 

• African diaspora:

  • General definition: The African Diaspora refers to the transatlantic movement of African peoples to the Americas through the slave trade. This created lasting racial issues into these societies of race, which continue to impact the modern world. However, this diaspora also brought significant cultural contributions, including religious beliefs, music, art, and cuisine, to the Americas. While enriching European and Euro-American economies, the slave trade also reinforced racial ideologies that influenced social and political movements.

General Ideas:

i give up idk

Chapter 16 (1450-1750): Religion and Science

Vocabulary:

• Protestant Reformation

• The Protestant Revolution, beginning in 1517 with Martin Luther’s Ninety-five Theses, shattered the unity of Roman Catholic Christianity, which had shaped Western Europe for over 1,000 years. Criticizing Church corruption and indulgences, it introduced revolutionary ideas like salvation by faith and individual interpretation of the Bible. Spreading quickly by the printing press, it provoked a major schism, fostering religious individualism, political shifts, and competing Protestant churches across Europe.

• Catholic (Counter) Reformation

• The Catholic (Counter) Reformation was the Church’s response to the Protestant Reformation, addressing internal reform and reaffirming core doctrines. The Council of Trent (1545–1563) clarified Catholic practices, including papal authority, priestly celibacy, veneration of saints, and the role of good works, rejecting Protestant criticisms. Efforts included improving priestly education, cracking down on dissent through censorship and penalties, and fostering individual spirituality and piety.

• Jesuits

• The Jesuits, or the Society of Jesus, were a Catholic religious order established during the Catholic (Counter) Reformation, dedicated to renewing the Church and spreading its influence worldwide. Deeply loyal to the pope, they served as missionaries, spreading Catholicism to Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Their efforts were central to the global expansion of Christianity and the revitalization of Catholicism.

• Jesuits in China

• The Jesuits in China, led by Matteo Ricci (1582–1610), targeted the elite, focusing on cultural exchange and respect for Chinese traditions. They learned the language, studied Confucian texts, and dressed as scholars. By emphasizing parallels between Confucianism and Christianity, they presented the faith as compatible with Chinese culture while introducing European knowledge in science, technology, and geography. This approach led to modest conversions. However, by the 18th century, the papacy opposed this cultural accommodation, leading to a significant shift in the relationship between Christian missionaries and Chinese society.

• Wahhabi Islam

• Wahhabi Islam, founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in the mid-18th century, sought a return to the pure faith of early Islam, rejecting practices like the veneration of saints and tombs. Gaining political support from Muhammad Ibn Saud in the 1740s, the movement established a state in central Arabia, enforcing strict religious reforms, such as destroying "idols" and banning certain practices. By the early 19th century, Wahhabi forces controlled much of Arabia, including Mecca, but were defeated by an Egyptian army in 1818. Despite this, Wahhabi influence continued to spread across the Islamic world.

• Sikhism

• Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak (1469–1539) in northern India, blended elements of Hinduism and Islam, emphasizing the oneness of God and the equality of all people. It attracted followers from both Hindu and Muslim communities, developing its own sacred text, the Guru Granth, and a central place of worship at the Golden Temple in Amritsar. Sikhs also adopted distinct practices, such as keeping uncut hair and wearing a turban. Over time, the movement evolved from a peaceful religious group into a militant community, especially in response to Mughal and Hindu hostility.

• Scientific Revolution

• The Scientific Revolution, occurring between the 16th and 18th centuries, radically changed Europe’s understanding of the cosmos, challenging traditional Christian teachings. Scientists like Copernicus, Galileo, Descartes, and Newton rejected reliance on religious authority and ancient philosophy, instead using observation, experiments, and mathematics to gain knowledge. This shift undermined the Church's authority and contributed to the decline of religious belief among the educated. While it sparked political and social change, it also led to the justification of racial and gender inequalities and contributed to both technological advances and the horrors of modern warfare.

• Copernicus

• Nicolaus Copernicus, a Polish mathematician and astronomer, revolutionized European understanding of the universe with his book On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543), proposing that the sun, not the Earth, was at the center of the universe. This heliocentric model challenged the long-held belief, supported by Aristotle, Ptolemy, and the Catholic Church, that the Earth was the center of all creation. Copernicus’s ideas sparked further discoveries, such as Kepler’s claim that planets followed elliptical orbits and Galileo’s observations of sunspots and Jupiter’s moons. These breakthroughs laid the foundation for the Scientific Revolution.

• Enlightenment

• The Enlightenment, spanning the 18th century, was a movement that applied reason, skepticism of authority, and natural laws to human affairs. Thinkers like Adam Smith developed ideas about economics and society based on reason, believing that human progress was achievable through knowledge. Enlightenment thinkers, such as John Locke, rejected divine authority and advocated for constitutional governments, the rights of individuals, and educational reforms. Many Enlightenment thinkers criticized religion, advocating for deism or pantheism. The movement also emphasized the potential for progress and human improvement.

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