Variation In English

English Language and Linguistics

• Focus on the variation in English language

Dialects

• Idiolect

  • Unique language characteristics of an individual speaker.

• Dialects

  • Different groups speaking the same language who express it differently.

  • Systematic differences lead to dialects of a language.

  • Dialects are mutually intelligible forms differing systematically.

Differentiating Speech Communities

• Examining whether speech community differences reflect dialects or languages:

  • Danish, Norwegian, Swedish: Separate languages despite mutual intelligibility.

  • Hindi and Urdu: Mutually intelligible yet categorized as different languages.

  • Mandarin and Cantonese: Distinct languages, referred to as dialects due to shared writing system.

Regional Dialects

• The character of language in geographically specific regions leads to regional dialects.

• American English: Influenced by settlers from various English dialects in the 17th-18th centuries.

  • Major dialect areas emerged by the American Revolution:

    • Northern Dialect: New England & Hudson River.

    • Midland Dialect: Pennsylvania.

    • Southern Dialect: Southern states.

Discussion on Accents

• Reflections on personal experiences with accents:

  • Associations with the term "accent" and perceptions.

  • Personal preferences or difficulties with understanding specific accents.

  • Impact of accent on social judgment and treatment.

Accents Defined

• Regional Phonological Distinctions: Accents (e.g., Boston, Brooklyn, Midwestern).

• Speech characteristics linked to geographic or sociolinguistic backgrounds.

• Contrast between regional accents and the accents of non-native speakers.

Phonological Differences in Dialects

• Pronunciation variations in UK vs. American English:

  • RP dialect emphasizes 'h' sounds; American English may drop them (e.g., "herb").

  • Instances of phonetic distinctions in daily vocabulary.

Lexical Differences

• Distinctions in terminology between British and American English:

  • Lift vs. elevator, petrol vs. gas, public school vs. private school.

  • Regional variations in words like soda, freeway, and others across dialects.

Syntactic Differences

• Examples showcasing American English syntax:

  • Usage of “have them come” vs. “have them to come.”

  • Double modals in American grammar.

• Syntactic deletion examples highlighting mutual intelligibility across dialects.

Social Dialects

• Influences of socioeconomic status, religion, race, and gender on dialect variation:

  • Different Arabic varieties spoken by religious groups in Baghdad.

  • Caste distinctions influencing Hindi, Gujarati, and Bengali use in India.

  • Unique dialects among African American communities and other ethnic groups.

The Standard Dialect

• Definition and implications of standard dialects:

  • Standard American English (SAE) seen as the dominant form but not precisely defined.

  • Historical context of BBC and RP English in relation to regional dialects.

  • Social implications of adopting standard dialects.

African American English

• Spoken by many Americans of African descent, shaped by historical context.

• Significant presence in casual speech contexts among working-class individuals.

• Middle-class African Americans increasingly adopting SAE due to socio-economic mobility.

Latino (Hispanic) English

• No single Latino dialect; variations exist among different Hispanic communities.

• Chicano English (ChE) identified as a distinct dialect group.

Genderlects

• Features of women's speech identified by Lakoff (1973):

  • Use of hedging, tag questions, and politeness strategies.

  • Gender influence on conversational dynamics in mixed-gender settings.

Sociolinguistic Analysis

• Labov's study on socio-class influences in dialect pronunciation in New York.

• Examples of pronunciation frequency based on socioeconomic status.

Languages in Contact

• Historical significance of language encounters through trade and migration.

• Solutions developed for bridging communication gaps in multilingual areas.

Lingua Francas

• Definition and historical context of lingua franca usage in various regions:

  • English as a modern lingua franca.

  • Other historical lingua francas like French, Russian, and Latin.

Contact Languages: Pidgins and Creoles

• Definition of pidgin languages in socio-political contexts.

• Historical context of pidgin evolution through European colonial languages.

• Creoles described as native languages evolving from pidgins.

Language in Use

• Knowledge of the linguistic structure (phonology, morphology, syntax) and its social application.

Styles

• Variation in language use based on context leads to style differences.

• Style characterized by structured informal language, not chaos.

Slang

• Characteristics of slang: metaphorical, playful, and often short-lived.

• Contributions of new words and meanings through slang evolution.

Jargon/Argot

• Importance of jargon in specialized communications across various fields, promoting clarity.

Euphemism

• Role of euphemisms in language to avoid unpleasant topics.

• Reflects the connotative meaning and societal values surrounding sensitive subjects.