Psychology Unit 6

6.1 What is Learning?

1. Instincts and Reflexes

   • Instincts:

     • Innate, complex behaviors triggered by broad events (e.g., migration, sexual activity).

     • Involve whole-organism movement and higher brain centers.

   • Reflexes:

     • Motor or neural reactions to specific stimuli (e.g., knee-jerk reflex, pupil contraction).

     • Simpler than instincts, involve specific body parts and lower brain centers (e.g., spinal cord, medulla).

   • Common Features:

     • Both are unlearned behaviors present from birth, aiding in environmental adaptation.

2. Examples

   • Reflex: Babies’ sucking reflex.

   • Instinct: Sea turtle hatchlings moving toward the ocean.

II. Definition of Learning

1. Learning:

   • A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.

   • Unlike instincts or reflexes, learned behaviors require conscious/unconscious experience.

2. Learning vs. Instinct/Reflex

   • Learning requires acquiring skills/knowledge through experience (e.g., learning to surf).

III. Forms of Learning

1. Associative Learning:

   • Process where organisms connect stimuli or events that occur together in the environment.

   • The foundation for all forms of learning.

2. Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning):

   • Learning to associate two stimuli that happen together (e.g., lightning followed by thunder).

   • Initially reflexive behaviors triggered by one stimulus can be triggered by a different, learned stimulus.

3. Operant Conditioning:

   • Learning the association between behavior and its consequence (reinforcement or punishment).

   • Example: Dog learns to sit to receive a treat (reinforcement); punishment for undesirable behavior (e.g., shock from invisible fence).

4. Observational Learning:

   • Learning through watching others and imitating their behaviors, without direct experience.

   • Example: A child learning to surf by watching a parent.

IV. Role of Behaviorism in Learning

1. Behaviorism:

   • Focuses on observable behaviors and their environmental triggers.

   • Classical, operant, and observational learning are all studied within this tradition.

   • Emphasizes the external environment as the primary driver of behavior, but modern behaviorism also considers cognition.

2. Other Traditions in Psychology:

   • Learning is also studied in fields like memory and cognition, leading to a more holistic understanding.

Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

• Ivan Pavlov: Russian scientist known for his work on classical conditioning.

• Classical conditioning: Learning process where an organism learns to associate stimuli and anticipate events.

Pavlov's Experiment

• Initial Research: Focused on digestive systems; Pavlov observed dogs' salivating at food.

• Discovery: Dogs salivated not only at food but also at the sight of food or the sound of footsteps.

• Psychic Secretions: Pavlov's term for this learned response, which led to his experiments.

• Key Components:

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Stimulus that elicits a reflex (e.g., meat powder).

  • Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural reaction (e.g., salivation to food).

  • Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially does not elicit a response (e.g., tone).

  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): After conditioning, it triggers the response (e.g., tone after being paired with food).

  • Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation to tone).

Real-World Applications

• Moisha’s Chemotherapy Example:

  • UCS: Chemotherapy drugs

  • UCR: Vomiting

  • CS: Doctor's office

  • CR: Nausea

  • Higher-order conditioning: The doctor’s office conditions a syringe as a new CS, causing nausea.

• Tiger the Cat Example:

  • UCS: Cat food

  • UCR: Excitement

  • CS: Electric can opener sound

  • CR: Running to food

  • Higher-order conditioning: Squeaky cabinet becomes a new CS.

6.2 Classical Conditioning

1. Acquisition:

   • Initial learning stage.

   • Association between NS and UCS formed.

   • Timing between stimuli presentation is crucial for conditioning.

   • Example: Ice cream truck music leading to salivation.

2. Extinction:

   • Reduction of the conditioned response.

   • Occurs when CS is presented without UCS (e.g., tone without food).

3. Spontaneous Recovery:

   • Reappearance of extinguished response after a rest period.

   • Example: Salivation returns after a break from hearing the tone.

4. Stimulus Generalization:

   • Responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the CS.

5. Stimulus Discrimination:

   • Differentiating between stimuli and responding only to the CS.

Taste Aversion and Evolutionary Adaptation

• Taste Aversion:

  • Example: Illness from cotton candy leads to aversion to sugary flavors.

  • Suggests an evolutionary mechanism for avoiding harmful foods.

• Biological Constraints:

  • Some associations are easier to form than others, supporting species survival.

Rescorla-Wagner Model

• Predictability: Learning strength depends on the CS's ability to predict the UCS.

• Example: Ari feels hungry at 6 PM because dinner consistently occurs then, whereas Soraya does not form this association due to inconsistent meal times.

6.3 Operant Conditioning

• Definition: Organisms learn to associate a behavior with its consequence.

• Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning:

  • Classical: Reflex triggered by environmental stimulus.

  • Operant: Behavior followed by a consequence that influences future behavior.

• Example: Dolphin flips, gets a fish as a reward.

3. Comparison of Classical and Operant Conditioning

• Classical Conditioning:

  • Stimulus occurs before the response.

  • Involves pairing stimuli to create conditioned responses.

• Operant Conditioning:

  • Behavior followed by reinforcement/punishment.

  • Strengthens or weakens the behavior.

4. B. F. Skinner and the Law of Effect

• Skinner’s View: Behavior is motivated by consequences (reinforcement/punishment).

• Law of Effect (Edward Thorndike):

  • Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are repeated.

  • Behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to occur.

• Example: Getting paid motivates people to show up for work.

5. Operant Conditioning and the Skinner Box

• Skinner Box:

  • Contains a lever/disc for animals to press/peck for food reward.

  • Helps study how reinforcement influences behavior.

6. Positive vs. Negative in Operant Conditioning

• Positive: Adding something (not necessarily good).

• Negative: Removing something.

• Reinforcement: Increases behavior.

• Punishment: Decreases behavior.

7. Types of Reinforcement and Punishment

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.

  • Example: Rewarding a child with a toy for cleaning their room.

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an undesirable stimulus to increase behavior.

  • Example: Seatbelt alarm stops when seatbelt is fastened.

• Positive Punishment: Adding an undesirable stimulus to decrease behavior.

  • Example: Scolding a student to stop texting in class.

• Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

  • Example: Taking away a toy when a child misbehaves.

8. Punishment: Drawbacks and Alternatives

• Problems with Punishment:

  • Can cause fear (of the punishment or the punisher).

  • May lead to aggression and antisocial behavior.

  • Example: Spanking can teach children to resort to aggression.

• Modern View: Reinforcement is preferred over punishment.

  • Example: Rewarding children for good behavior.

9. Shaping Behavior

• Definition: Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.

• Process:

  1. Reinforce any behavior resembling the desired behavior.

  2. Gradually reinforce closer approximations of the desired behavior.

  3. Only reinforce the final desired behavior.

• Uses: Effective for teaching complex behaviors.

• Example: Teaching animals tricks like turning in circles or playing ping pong.

• Human Example: Parents teaching a child to clean their room through small steps.

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

1. Primary Reinforcers:

   • Innate reinforcing qualities.

   • Examples: food, water, sleep, shelter, sex, touch, pleasure.

   • Not learned and fulfill basic needs.

   • Example: A cool lake on a hot day is reinforcing because it satisfies physical needs and provides pleasure.

2. Secondary Reinforcers:

   • No inherent value but gain reinforcing qualities when linked with primary reinforcers.

   • Examples: praise, money, stickers, tokens.

   • Example: Money is valuable because it can be used to buy primary reinforcers (e.g., food, shelter).

3. Token Economies:

   • Behavior management systems using tokens (secondary reinforcers) that can be exchanged for rewards.

   • Effective in various settings like schools, prisons, and mental hospitals.

   • Example: Children receiving “quiet hands” tokens for good behavior and exchanging them for playtime.

Reinforcement Schedules

1. Continuous Reinforcement:

   • Reinforcement provided every time a behavior occurs.

   • Quickest way to teach new behavior.

   • Example: Giving a dog a treat every time it sits.

2. Partial Reinforcement:

   • Reinforcement not provided every time a behavior occurs.

   • Several types: Fixed or Variable; Interval or Ratio.

3. Fixed Interval Reinforcement:

   • Rewarded after a set amount of time.

   • Example: Patient receiving a painkiller dose once every hour.

4. Variable Interval Reinforcement:

   • Reward based on varying, unpredictable amounts of time.

   • Example: Restaurant workers receive a $20 bonus when the restaurant passes an unannounced inspection.

5. Fixed Ratio Reinforcement:

   • Rewarded after a set number of responses.

   • Example: Salesperson earning a commission after every pair of glasses sold.

6. Variable Ratio Reinforcement:

   • Reward after a varying number of responses.

   • Most powerful schedule for reinforcement.

   • Example: Gambling—reinforcement (win) is unpredictable, making it highly addictive.

Extinction in Operant Conditioning

• Extinction: Occurs when reinforcement stops, causing the behavior to decline.

  • Variable Ratio Schedule: Extinction occurs slowly (e.g., gambling).

  • Fixed Interval Schedule: Extinction happens quickly (e.g., pain relief that’s only available at fixed times).

Cognition and Latent Learning

1. Behaviorism vs. Cognition:

   • Strict behaviorists like Watson and Skinner focused solely on behavior, ignoring thoughts and expectations (cognition).

   • Skinner's approach was considered radical behaviorism, believing cognition didn’t matter.

   • Skinner referred to the mind as a "black box"—unknowable and not worth studying.

2. Edward C. Tolman’s Perspective:

   • Disagreed with Skinner and believed that learning could occur without immediate reinforcement.

   • His experiments showed a cognitive aspect to learning, challenging the idea that reinforcement must be immediate.

3. Tolman’s Rat Maze Experiment:

   • Setup: Hungry rats placed in a maze without reward (no food at the end).

   • A comparison group was rewarded with food at the end of the maze.

   • Cognitive Map: Unrewarded rats developed a mental map of the maze layout as they explored.

   • After 10 sessions without reinforcement, food was placed in a goal box at the maze's end.

   • Result: Once rats were aware of the food, they quickly navigated the maze as effectively as the comparison group that had been receiving rewards all along.

4. Latent Learning:

   • Learning that occurs but is not demonstrated until there is motivation to show it.

   • Example in Rats: Rats learned the maze without reinforcement but didn’t show their knowledge until there was food (reinforcement) as a reason to demonstrate it.

5. Latent Learning in Humans:

   • Children may learn by observing parents’ actions and only demonstrate that learning when needed later.

   • Example: Ravi learned the route to school by observing his father drive him daily. When his father couldn't drive him one day, Ravi biked the route successfully, demonstrating his latent learning.

6.4 Observational Learning

1. Definition and Overview:

• Observational Learning: Learning by watching others and imitating their actions or words.

• Models: Individuals whose behaviors are imitated.

• Mirror Neurons: Specific neurons linked to imitation learning.

2. Examples of Observational Learning:

• Chimpanzee Study: Chimps changed behavior after observing more efficient juice-drinking methods.

• Claire's Example: A child imitated her mother’s aggressive behavior, highlighting the influence of modeled actions.

3. Social Learning Theory:

• Albert Bandura's Contribution: Emphasized the role of cognitive processes in learning and proposed that learning can occur without direct reinforcement.

• Observational Learning vs. Imitation: More complex than copying; involves learning new responses, choosing when to imitate, and applying general rules.

4. Types of Models:

• Live Models: Demonstrate behaviors directly (e.g., Ben surfing).

• Verbal Instructional Models: Describe behaviors without performing them (e.g., soccer coach).

• Symbolic Models: Represented in media (books, TV, movies, video games).

5. Steps in the Modeling Process:

• Attention: Focus on the model’s behavior.

• Retention: Remember the observed behavior.

• Reproduction: Ability to replicate the behavior.

• Motivation: Desire to imitate, influenced by vicarious reinforcement or punishment.

6. Bandura's Research on Modeling:

• Bobo Doll Experiment: Children imitated aggressive behavior observed in adults, especially when adults were not punished.

7. Prosocial and Antisocial Effects:

• Prosocial Models: Encourage positive behaviors like reading, exercising, and kindness.

• Antisocial Models: Can lead to negative behaviors (e.g., aggressive actions) observed in abusive households.

8. Media Influence on Behavior:

• Violence in Media: Exposure to violent content may lead to increased aggression and desensitization, especially in children.

Motivation Overview

• Motivation has both straightforward and complex aspects.

• Definition: A motive is physiological or psychological arousal influencing behavior, also described as an impulse causing action (needs, wants, desires).

  • Physiological arousal: Hunger motivates eating.

  • Psychological arousal: Need for friendship motivates social interaction.

• Intervening variable: Motive intervenes between stimulus and response (e.g., writing notes in class shows a student’s motivation).

General Definitions of Motivation

1. Feelings or ideas that cause goal-directed action.

2. Factors energizing behavior and determining direction.

3. Any condition initiating and maintaining goal-directed behavior.

Functions of Motivation

1. Connects observable behavior to internal states.

2. Accounts for differences between individuals.

3. Explains initiation and guidance of goal-directed behavior.

Theories of Motivation

1. Drive Theories: Motivation stems from biological drives to meet survival needs (e.g., hunger).

2. Incentive Theories: Motivation is pulled by desires or goals.

3. Evolutionary Theories: Behavior evolves to increase survival and reproduction chances.

Instinct Theory

• Based on Darwin's theory of evolution.

• Instinct: Unlearned, passed-down behavior.

  • Example: Salmon instinctively swim upstream to reproduce.

• Limitation: Most human behaviors are learned and not purely instinctual.

Homeostatic Theories

1. Homeostasis: The process of maintaining physiological balance (e.g., sex, hunger, thirst).

   • Physiological need activates a drive (state of discomfort) to restore balance.

2. Types of drives:

   • Primary drives: Innate biological needs.

   • Secondary drives: Learned, associated with primary reinforcers.

3. Problem: Humans often seek stimuli unrelated to immediate biological needs.

Drive Reduction Theory

• Drives push behavior toward homeostasis (e.g., hunger leads to eating).

• Limitation: Does not account for motivations unrelated to drives.

Incentive Theory

• Behavior is pulled by desire for rewards.

• Assumption: Humans/animals are motivated to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

• Problem: Some goals require unpleasant behaviors (e.g., hard work, sacrifice).

Arousal Theory

• People seek an optimal level of arousal (varies between individuals).

• Yerkes-Dodson Law: Performance is best at moderate levels of arousal.

  • Low or high arousal can impair performance.

• Extroversion/Introversion:

  • Extroverts: Seek higher external arousal.

  • Introverts: Prefer lower arousal levels.

• Limitation: External stimuli can influence arousal beyond internal needs.

Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation

1. Extrinsic Motivation: Driven by external rewards (e.g., money, grades).

2. Intrinsic Motivation: Driven by internal satisfaction (e.g., enjoyment of the task).

3. Overjustification effect: External rewards can reduce intrinsic motivation when discontinued.

4. Performance-contingent reinforcers: External rewards (e.g., grades) that depend on performance don’t undermine intrinsic motivation.

Freewill vs Determinism: Outline Notes

Overview:

• Debate revolves around whether behavior is determined by uncontrollable forces (determinism) or self-determined by free will.

Determinism:

• Definition: All behavior has a cause and is predictable. Free will is an illusion.

• External Determinism: Behavior is caused by external forces like parental influence, media, and school.

  • Example: Bandura's (1961) study on children learning aggression by observing violent parents.

• Internal Determinism: Behavior is controlled by internal biological factors (e.g., evolution, genetics).

  • Example: Bowlby's (1969) theory of attachment and genetic traits like extraversion.

  • Personality traits and behaviors are seen as results of neurological and hormonal processes.

  • Freud: behavior is controlled by unconscious motivation and past experiences (psychic determinism).

Types of Determinism:

• Hard Determinism: Free will is entirely an illusion; every action has a cause.

  • Proponent: B.F. Skinner, who viewed all behavior as controlled by environmental or historical factors.

  • Example: Criminals commit crimes due to past reinforcers; law-abiding behavior is similarly controlled by past rewards.

• Soft Determinism: Middle ground; individuals have constrained choices due to external/internal factors.

  • Example: Poverty may influence, but not determine, one's decision to steal.

  • Allows for some element of free will in behavior, but recognizes constraints.

Challenges to Determinism:

• Conflicts with societal ideas of responsibility, self-control, and moral/legal obligations.

• Psychologists cannot predict behavior with 100% accuracy due to complex variables.

Free Will:

• Definition: Individuals can choose their actions, are self-determined, and responsible for their behavior.

  • Example: Choosing to commit a crime.

  • Humanistic psychology supports free will, emphasizing personal agency (choices) and self-actualization (Maslow, Rogers).

  • Human behavior, unlike chemical reactions, has endless permutations due to free will.

Freud's View on Free Will:

• Initially seen as a determinist, Freud believed unconscious forces controlled behavior.

• However, therapy aimed to help individuals overcome these forces, suggesting change (and thus, free will) is possible.

• Erich Fromm’s (1941) "Fear of Freedom": Humans have the potential to control their own lives but often give up freedom out of fear.

Critical Evaluation:

• Determinism Critique: Removes freedom and devalues individual behavior.

  • Legal implications: Reduced responsibility due to determinism (e.g., crime due to upbringing or mental illness).

  • Scientific implications: Psychology as a science seeks laws to predict behavior, but rejecting determinism undermines this approach.

• Mental Illness: Challenges free will (e.g., OCD and depression reduce control over thoughts and emotions).

• Soft Determinism: Most psychologists support soft determinism, acknowledging constrained choices but emphasizing active responses to internal/external forces.

Conclusion:

• Neither pure determinism nor free will fully explains human behavior. The soft determinism model is often preferred in psychology.