APUSH Period 1

The original discovery, exploration, and settlement of North and South Amer-

ica occurred at least 10,000 years before Christopher Columbus was born. Some

archeologists estimate that the first people settled in North America 40,000 years

ago. Migrants from Asia may have crossed a land bridge that once connected

Siberia and Alaska (land now submerged under the Bering Sea). Over time,

people migrated southward from near the Arctic Circle to the southern tip of

South America. The first Americans adapted to the varied environments of the

regions that they found. They evolved into hundreds of tribes, spoke different

languages, and practiced different cultures. Estimates of the native population

in the Americas in the 1490s vary from 50 million to 100 million people.

Cultures of Central and South America

The native population was concentrated in three highly developed civilizations.

Between A.D. 300 and 800, the Mayas built remarkable cities in the rain forests

of the Yucatan Peninsula (present-day Guatemala, Belize, and southern Mex-

ico). Several centuries after the decline of the Mayas, the Aztecs from central

Mexico developed a powerful empire. The Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, had a

population of about 200,000, equivalent in population to the largest cities of

Europe. While the Aztecs were dominating Mexico and Central America, the

Incas based in Peru developed a vast empire in South America. All three civili-

zations developed highly organized societies, carried on an extensive trade, and

created calendars that were based on accurate scientific observations. All three

cultivated crops that provided a stable food supply, particularly corn (maize) for

the Mayas and Aztecs and potatoes for the Incas.

2 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM

Cultures of North America

The population in the region north of Mexico (present-day United States and

Canada) in the 1490s may have been anywhere from under 1 million to more

than 10 million. In general, the native societies in this region were smaller and

less sophisticated than those in Mexico and South America. One reason for

this was how slowly the cultivation of corn (maize) spread northward from

Mexico.

Some of the most populous and complex societies in North America had

disappeared by the 15th century, for reasons not well understood. By the time

of Columbus, most people in the Americas in what is now the United States

and Canada lived in semipermanent settlements in groups seldom exceeding

300 people. The men made tools and hunted for game, while the women gath-

ered plants and nuts or grew crops such as corn (maize), beans, and tobacco.

A NEW WORLD OF MANY CULTURES, 1491-1607 3

Language Beyond these similarities, the cultures of American Indians

were very diverse. For example, while English, Spanish, and almost all other

European languages were part of just one language family (Inda-European),

American Indian languages constituted more than 20 language families.

Among the largest of these were Algonquian in the Northeast, Siouan on the

Great Plains, and Athabaskan in the Southwest. Together, these 20 families

included more than 400 distinct languages.

Southwest Settlements In the dry region that now includes New Mex-

ico and Arizona, groups such as the Hokokam, Anasazi, and Pueblos evolved

multifaceted societies supported by farming with irrigation systems. In large

numbers they lived in caves, under cliffs, and in multistoried buildings. By the

time Europeans arrived, extreme drought and other hostile natives had taken

their toll on these groups. However, much of their way of life was preserved in

the arid land and their stone and masonry dwellings.

Northwest Settlements Along the Pacific coast from what is today Alaska

to northern California, people lived in permanent longhouses or plank houses.

They had a rich diet based on hunting, fishing, and gathering nuts, berries, and

roots. To save stories, legends, and myths, they carved large totem poles. The

high mountain ranges in this region isolated tribes from one another, creating

barriers to development.

Great Plains Most people who lived on the Great Plains were either

nomadic hunters or sedentary people who farmed and traded. The nomadic

tribes survived on hunting, principally the buffalo, which supplied their food as

well as decorations, crafting tools, knives, and clothing. They lived in tepees,

frames of poles covered in animal skins, which were easily disassembled and

transported. While the farming tribes also hunted buffalo, they lived perma-

nently in earthen lodges often along rivers. They raised corn (maize), beans,

and squash while actively trading with other tribes. Not until the 17th century

did American Indians acquire horses by trading or stealing them from Spanish

settlers. With horses, tribes such as the Lakota Sioux moved away from farm-

ing to hunting and easily following the buffalo across the plains. The plains

tribes would at times merge or split apart as conditions changed. Migration

also was common. For example, the Apaches gradually migrated southward

from Canada to Texas.

Midwest Settlements East of the Mississippi River, the Woodland Ameri-

can Indians prospered with a rich food supply. Supported by hunting, fishing,

and agriculture, many permanent settlements developed in the Mississippi and

Ohio River valleys and elsewhere. The Adena-Hopewell culture, centered in

what is now Ohio, is famous for the large earthen mounds it created, some

as large as 300 feet long. One of the largest settlements in the Midwest was

Cahokia (near present-day East St. Louis, Illinois), with as many as 30,000

inhabitants.

Northeast Settlements Some descendants of the Adena-Hopewell culture

spread from the Ohio Valley into New York. Their culture combined hunting

4 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM

and farming. However, their farming techniques exhausted the soil quickly, so

people had to move to fresh land frequently. Among the most famous groups

of American Indians in this region was the Iroquois Confederation, a political

union of five independent tribes who lived in the Mohawk Valley of New York.

The five tribes were the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, and Mohawk.

Multiple families related through a mother lived in longhouses, up to 200 feet

long. From the 16th century through the American Revolution, the Iroquois

were a powerful force, battling rival American Indians as well as Europeans.

Atlantic Seaboard Settlements In the area from New Jersey south to

Florida lived the people of the Coastal Plains. Many were descendants of the

Woodland mound builders and built timber and bark lodgings along rivers. The

rivers and the Atlantic Ocean provided a rich source of food.

Europe Moves Toward Exploration

Until the late 1400s, Americans and the people of Europe, Africa, and Asia

had no knowledge of the people on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean. While

Vikings from Scandinavia had visited Greenland and North America around

the year 1000, these voyages had no lasting impact. Columbus's voyages of

exploration finally brought people into contact across the Atlantic. Several fac-

tors made an oceanic crossing and exploration possible in the late 15th century.

Improvements in Technology

In Europe, a rebirth of classical learning prompted an outburst of artistic and

scientific activity in the 15th and 16th centuries known as the Renaissance.

Several of the technological advances during the Renaissance resulted from

Europeans making improvements in the inventions of others. For example,

they began to use gunpowder (invented by the Chinese) and the sailing com-

pass (adopted from Arab merchants who learned about it from the Chinese).

Europeans also made major improvements in shipbuilding and mapmaking. In

addition, the invention of the printing press in the 1450s aided the spread of

knowledge across Europe.

Religious Conflict

The later years of the Renaissance were a time of intense religious zeal and

conflict. The Roman Catholic Church that had once dominated Western Europe

was threatened from without by Ottoman Turks who were followers of Islam

and from within by a revolt against the pope's authority.

Catholic Victory in Spain In the 8th century, Islamic invaders from

North Africa, known as Moors, rapidly conquered most of what is now Spain.

Over the next several centuries, Spanish Christians reconquered much of the

land and set up several independent kingdoms. Two of the largest of these king-

doms united when Isabella, queen of Castile, and Ferdinand, king of Aragon,

married in 1469. In 1492, under the leadership of Isabella and Ferdinand, the

Spanish conquered the last Moorish stronghold in Spain, the city of Granada.

In that year, the monarchs also funded Christopher Columbus on his historic

A NEW WORLD OF MANY CULTURES, 1491-1607 5

first voyage. The uniting of Spain under Isabella and Ferdinand, the conquest

of Granada, and the launching of Columbus signaled new leadership, hope, and

power for Europeans who followed the Roman Catholic faith.

Protestant Revolt in Northern Europe In the early 1500s, certain Chris-

tians in Germany, England, France, Holland, and other northern European

countries revolted against the authority of the pope in Rome. Their revolt was

known as the Protestant Reformation. Conflict between Catholics and Protes-

tants led to a series of religious wars. The conflict also caused the Catholics of

Spain and Portugal and the Protestants of England and Holland to want to spread

their own versions of Christianity to people in Africa, Asia, and the Americas.

Thus, a religious motive for exploration and colonization was added to political

and economic motives.

Expanding Trade

Economic motives for exploration grew out of a fierce competition among Euro-

pean kingdoms for increased trade with Africa, India, and China. In the past,

merchants had traveled from the Italian city-state of Venice and the Byzantine

city of Constantinople on a long, slow, expensive overland route that reached all

the way to the capital of the Chinese empire. This land route to Asia had become

blocked in 1453 when the Ottoman Turks seized control of Constantinople.

New Routes So the challenge to finding a new way to the rich Asian trade

appeared to be by sailing either south along the West African coast east to

China, or sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean. The Portuguese, who realized

the route south and east was the shortest path, thought this option seemed more

promising. Voyages of exploration sponsored by Portugal's Prince Henry the

Navigator eventually succeeded in opening up a long sea route around South

Africa's Cape of Good Hope. In 1498, the Portuguese sea captain Vasco da

Gama was the first European to reach India via this route. By this time, Colum-

bus had attempted what he mistakenly believed would be a shorter route to Asia.

Slave Trading Since ancient times people in Europe, Africa, and Asia had

enslaved people captured in wars. In the 15th century, the Portuguese began

trading for slaves from West Africa. They used the slaves to work newly estab-

lished sugar plantations on the Madeira and Azores islands off the African coast.

Producing sugar with slave labor was so profitable that when Europeans later

established colonies in the Americas, they used the slave system there.

African Resistance Enslaved Africans resisted slavery in whatever ways

they could. Though transported thousands of miles from their homelands and

brutally repressed, they often ran away, sabotaged work, or revolted. And for

generations they maintained aspects of their African culture, particularly in

music, religion, and folkways.

Developing Nation-States

Europe was also changing politically in the 15th century. Small kingdoms, such

as Castile and Aragon, were uniting into larger ones. Enormous multiethnic

empires, such as the sprawling Holy Roman Empire in central Europe, were

6 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM

breaking up. Replacing the small kingdoms and the multiethnic empires were

nation-states, countries in which the majority of people shared both a com-

mon culture and common loyalty toward a central government. The monarchs

of the emerging nation-states, such as Isabella and Ferdinand of Spain; Prince

Henry the Navigator of Portugal; and similar monarchs of France, England,

and the Netherlands; depended on trade to bring in needed revenues and on the

church to justify their right to rule. They used their power to search for riches

abroad and to spread the influence of their version of Christianity to new over-

seas dominions.

Early Explorations

Changing economic, political, and social conditions in Europe shaped the ambi-

tions of the Italian-born Christopher Columbus.

Christopher Columbus

Columbus spent eight years seeking financial support for his plan to sail west

from Europe to the "Indies." Finally, in 1492, he succeeded in winning the

backing of Isabella and Ferdinand. The two Spanish monarchs were then at the

height of their power, having just defeated the Moors in Granada. They agreed

to outfit three ships and to make Columbus governor, admiral, and viceroy of all

the lands that he would claim for Spain.

After sailing from the Canary Islands on September 6, Columbus landed on

an island in the Bahamas on October 12. His success in reaching lands on the

other side of the ocean brought him a burst of glory in Spain. But three subse-

quent voyages across the Atlantic were disappointing-he found little gold, few

spices, and no simple path to China and India.

Columbus's Legacy Columbus died in 1506, still believing that he had

found a western route to Asia. However, many Spaniards viewed Columbus as a

failure because they suspected that he had found not a valuable trade route, but

a "New World." Today, some people scoff at Columbus for having erroneously

giving the people he encountered the name "Indians." Even the land that he had

explored was named for someone else, Amerigo Vespucci, another Italian sailor.

Columbus's critics also point out the many problems and injustices suffered by

the natives of the Americas after Europeans arrived and took over their land.

Nevertheless, most historians agree on Columbus's importance. Modern

scholars have recognized his great skills as a navigator and his daring commit-

ment in going forth where nobody else had ever dared to venture. Furthermore,

Columbus's voyages brought about, for the first time in history, permanent inter-

action between people from all over the globe. He changed the world forever.

Exchanges Europeans and the original inhabitants of the Americas had

developed vastly different cultures over the millennia. The contact between

them resulted in the Columbian Exchange, a transfer of plants, animals, and

germs from one side of the Atlantic to the other for the first time. Europeans

learned about many new plants and foods, including beans, corn, sweet and

A NEW WORLD OF MANY CULTURES, 1491-1607 7

white potatoes, tomatoes, and tobacco. They also contracted a new disease,

syphilis. Europeans introduced to the Americas sugar cane, bluegrasses, pigs,

and horses, as well as the wheel, iron implements, and guns. Deadlier than all

the guns was the European importation of germs and diseases, such as smallpox

and measles, to which the natives had no immunity. Millions died (there was

a mortality rate of more than 90 percent), including entire tribal communities.

These exchanges, biological and cultural, would permanently change the entire

world.

Dividing the Americas

Spain and Portugal were the first European kingdoms to claim territories in the

Americas. Their claims overlapped, leading to disputes. The Catholic monarchs

of the two countries turned to the pope in Rome to resolve their differences. In

1493, the pope drew a vertical, north-south line on a world map, called the line

of demarcation. The pope granted Spain all lands to the west of the line and

Portugal all lands to the east.

In 1494, Spain and Portugal moved the pope's line a few degrees to the

west and signed an agreement called the Treaty of Tordesillas. The line passed

through what is now the country of Brazil. This treaty, together with Portuguese

explorations, established Portugal's claim to Brazil. Spain claimed the rest of

the Americas. However, other European countries soon challenged these claims.

Spanish Exploration and Conquest

Spanish dominance in the Americas was based on more than a papal ruling and

a treaty. Spain owed its expanding power to its explorers and conquerors ( called

conquistadores). Feats such as the journey across the Isthmus of Panama to the

Pacific Ocean by Vasco Nunez de Balboa, the circumnavigation of the world by

one of Ferdinand Magellan's ships (Magellan died before completing the trip),

the conquests of the Aztecs in Mexico by Heman Cortes, and the conquest of

the Incas in Peru by Francisco Pizzaro secured Spain's initial supremacy in the

Americas.

The conquistadores sent ships loaded with gold and silver back to Spain

from Mexico and Peru. They increased the gold supply by more than 500 per-

cent, making Spain the richest and most powerful nation in Europe. Spain's

success encouraged other nations to tum to the Americas in search of gold and

power. After seizing the wealth of the Indian empires, the Spanish instituted an

encomienda system, with the king of Spain giving grants of land and natives

to individual Spaniards. These Indians had to farm or work in the mines. The

fruits of their labors went to their Spanish masters, who in tum had to "care" for

them. As Europeans' diseases and brutality reduced the native population, the

Spanish brought enslaved people from West Africa under the asiento system.

This required the Spanish to pay a tax to their king on each slave they imported

to the Americas.

England's earliest claims to territory in the Americas rested on the voyages of

John Cabot, an Italian sea captain who sailed under contract to England's King

Henry VII. Cabot explored the coast of Newfoundland in 1497.

England, however, did not follow up Cabot's discoveries with other expe-

ditions of exploration and settlement. Other issues preoccupied England's

monarchy in the 1500s, including Henry VIII's break with the Roman Catholic

Church. In the 1570s and 1580s, under Queen Elizabeth I, England challenged

Spanish shipping in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Sir Francis Drake, for

example, attacked Spanish ships, seized the gold and silver that they carried,

and even attacked Spanish settlements on the coast of Peru. Another English

adventurer, Sir Walter Raleigh, attempted to establish a settlement at Roanoke

Island off the North Carolina coast in 1587, but the venture failed.

A NEW WORLD OF MANY CULTURES, 1491-1607

French Claims

The French monarchy first showed interest in exploration in 1524 when it spon-

sored a voyage by an Italian navigator, Giovanni da Verrazano. Hoping to find

a northwest passage leading through the Americas to Asia, Verrazano explored

part of North America's eastern coast, including the New York harbor. French

claims to American territory were also based on the voyages of Jacques Cartier

(1534-1542), who explored the St. Lawrence River extensively.

Like the English, the French were slow to develop colonies across the Atlan-

tic. During the 1500s, the French monarchy was preoccupied with European

wars as well as with internal religious conflict between Roman Catholics and

French Protestants known as Huguenots. Only in the next century did France

develop a strong interest in following up its claims to North American land.

The first permanent French settlement in America was established by Samuel

de Champlain in 1608 at Quebec, a fortified village on the St. Lawrence River.

Champlain's strong leadership won him the nickname "Father of New France."

Other explorers extended French claims across a vast territory. In 1673, Louis

Jolliet and Father Jacques Marquette explored the upper Mississippi River, and

in 1682, Robert de La Salle explored the Mississippi basin, which he named

Louisiana (after the French king, Louis XIV).

Dutch Claims

During the 1600s, the Netherlands also began to sponsor voyages of explo-

ration. The Dutch government hired Henry Hudson, an experienced English

sailor, to seek westward passage to Asia through northern America. In 1609,

while searching for a northwest passage, Hudson sailed up a broad river that

was later named for him, the Hudson River. This expedition established Dutch

claims to the surrounding area that would become New Amsterdam (and later

New York). The Dutch government granted a private company, the Dutch West

India Company, the right to control the region for economic gain.

Spanish Settlements in North America

Spanish settlements developed slowly in North America, as a result of limited

mineral resources and strong opposition from American Indians.

Florida After a number of failed attempts and against the strong resistance

of American Indians in the region, the Spanish established a permanent settle-

ment at St. Augustine in 1565. Today, St. Augustine is the oldest city in North

America founded by Europeans.

New Mexico Santa Fe was established as the capital of New Mexico in

1610. Harsh efforts to Christianize the American Indians caused the Pueblo

people to revolt in 1680. The Spanish were driven from the area until 1692.

Texas In between Florida and New Mexico, the Spanish established settle-

ments in Texas. These communities grew in the early 1700s as Spain attempted

to resist French efforts to explore the lower Mississippi River.

10 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM

California In response to Russian exploration from Alaska, the Spanish

established permanent settlements at San Diego in 1769 and San Francisco in

1776. By 1784, a series of missions or settlements had been established along

the California coast by members of the Franciscan order. Father Junfpero Serra

founded nine of these missions.

European Treatment of Native Americans

Most Europeans looked down upon Native Americans. The Europeans who col-

onized North and South America generally viewed Native Americans as inferior

people who could be exploited for economic gain, converted to Christianity,

and used as military allies. However, Europeans used various approaches for

controlling Native Americans and operating their colonies.

Spanish Policy

The Spanish who settled in Mexico and Peru encountered the highly orga-

nized Aztec and Inca empires. Even after diseases killed most natives, millions

remained in these empires that the Spanish could incorporate as laborers in their

own empire. Many natives who did not die from disease died from forced labor.

Because few families came from Spain to settle the empire, the explorers and

soldiers intermarried with natives as well as with Africans. The latter were cap-

tured in Africa and forced to travel across the ocean to provide slave labor for

the Spanish colonists. A rigid class system developed in the Spanish colonies,

one dominated by pure-blooded Spaniards.

Bartolome de Las Casas One European who dissented from the views

of most Europeans toward Native Americans was a Spanish priest named Bar-

tolome de Las Casas. Though he had owned land and slaves in the West Indies

and had fought in wars against the Indians, he eventually became an advocate

for better treatment for Indians. He persuaded the king to institute the New

Laws of 1542. These laws ended Indian slavery, halted forced Indian labor,

and began to end the encomienda system which kept the Indians in serfdom.

Conservative Spaniards, eager to keep the encomienda system, responded and

successfully pushed the king to repeal parts of the New Laws.

Valladolid Debate The debate over the role for Indians in the Spanish

colonies came to a head in a formal debate in 1550-1551 in Valladolid, Spain.

On one side, Las Casas argued that the Indians were completely human and

morally equal to Europeans, so enslaving them was not justified. On the other

side, another priest, Juan Gines de Sepulveda, argued that Indians were less than

human. Hence, they benefited from serving the Spaniards in the econmienda

system. Neither side clearly won the debate. Though Las Casas was unable to

gain equal treatment for Native Americans, he established the basic arguments

on behalf of justice for Indians.

A NEW WORLD OF MANY CULTURES, 1491-1607 11

English Policy

Unlike the Spanish, the English settled in areas without large native empires

that could be controlled as a workforce. In addition, many English colonists

came in families rather than as single young men, so marriage with natives was

less common. Initially, at least in Massachusetts, the English and the American

Indians coexisted, traded, and shared ideas. American Indians taught the settlers

how to grow new crops such as corn (maize) and showed them how to hunt

in the forests. They traded various furs for an array of English manufactured

goods, including iron tools and weapons. But peaceful relations soon gave way

to conflict and open warfare. The English had no respect for American Indian

cultures, which they viewed as primitive or "savage." For their part, American

Indians saw their way of life threatened as the English began to take more land

to support their ever-increasing population. The English occupied the land and

forced the small, scattered tribes they encountered to move away from the coast

to inland territories. They expelled the natives rather than subjugating them.

French Policy

The French, looking for furs and converts to Catholicism, viewed American

Indians as potential economic and military allies. Compared to the Spaniards

and the English, the French maintained good relations with the tribes they

encountered. Seeking to control the fur trade, the French built trading posts

throughout the St. Lawrence Valley, the Great Lakes region, and along the Mis-

sissippi River. At these posts, they exchanged French goods for beaver pelts and

other furs collected by American Indians. Because the French had few colonists,

farms, or towns, they posed less threat to the native population than did other

Europeans. In addition, French soldiers assisted the Huron people in fighting

their traditional enemy, the Iroquois.

Native American Reaction

North American tribes saw themselves as groups distinct from each other, not

as part of a larger body of Native Americans. As a result, European settlers

rarely had to be concerned with a unified response from the Native Americans.

Initially the European goods such as copper pots and guns had motivated the

natives to interact with the strangers. After the decimation of their peoples from

the violence and disease of the Europeans, the Native Americans had to adopt

new ways to survive. Upon observing the Europeans fighting each other, some

tribes allied themselves with one European power or another in hopes of gain-

ing support in order to survive. A number of tribes simply migrated to new land

to get away from the slowly encroaching settlers. Regardless of how they dealt

with the European invasion, Native Americans would never be able to return to

the life they had known prior to 1492.