Chapter 1 (1)

Chapter 1: The Science of Psychology

Learning Objectives

• 1.1: Define psychology and outline its four primary goals.

• 1.2: Distinguish between structuralism and functionalism and identify key figures from these movements.

• 1.3: Overview of early approaches, including Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism along with key contributors.

• 1.4: Explain the seven modern perspectives in psychology and recognize contributions from Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers.

• 1.5: Differentiate between psychologists and psychiatrists, including various roles within the field.

• 1.6: Justify why psychology is considered a science, detailing scientific method steps.

• 1.7: Compare naturalistic and laboratory settings in behavioral studies, noting advantages and disadvantages.

• 1.8: Address the role of case studies and surveys in research, along with their limitations.

• 1.9: Describe the correlational technique and its implications for understanding relationships.

• 1.10: Discuss experimental design with operational definitions, variables, and group assignments.

• 1.11: Identify issues like placebo and experimenter effects and describe methods to mitigate them.

• 1.12: Outline elements of real-world experiments.

• 1.13: Recognize ethical considerations in research involving humans and animals.

• 1.14: Understand the basics of critical thinking and its practical applications.

What Is Psychology?

• Definition: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

  • Behavior: Observable actions and reactions.

  • Mental Processes: Internal activities of the mind.

Psychology as a Science

• Utilizes rigorous methods to avoid biases.

• Emphasizes precision in measurement and observation.

Psychology’s Four Goals

1. Description: What is happening?

2. Explanation: Why is it happening? (Theory: a general explanation of observations)

3. Prediction: Will it happen again?

4. Control: How can it be changed?

Historical Perspectives in Psychology

Structuralism

• Focus: Structure and elements of the mind.

• Key Figures:

  • Wilhelm Wundt: Established the first psychology lab in 1879, known for objective introspection.

  • Edward Titchener: Wundt's student, he brought structuralism to the U.S.

  • Margaret Washburn: First woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology.

• Outcome: Structuralism faded in the early 1900s.

Functionalism

• Focus: How the mind adapts and functions in everyday life.

• Proponent: William James.

• Influence: Contributed to various fields like educational, evolutionary, and industrial/organizational psychology.

• Key Issues: Notable figures included Mary Whiton Calkins.

Gestalt Psychology

• Concept: Focused on perception, emphasizing that the whole is different from the sum of its parts, coined as "good figure" psychology.

• Key Figures: Max Wertheimer's studies influenced cognitive psychology.

Psychoanalysis

• Origin: Developed by Sigmund Freud, focusing on unconscious motivations and childhood experiences influencing behaviors.

Behaviorism

• Focus: Observable behavior as the subject of psychology, dismissing internal processes.

• Key Figures:

  • John B. Watson: Majored in environment-driven behavior.

  • Ivan Pavlov: Known for classical conditioning.

  • Mary Cover Jones: Contributed early to behavior therapy.

Modern Perspectives in Psychology

• Psychodynamic Perspective: Focuses on self-development and non-sexual motivations.

• Behavioral Perspective: Emphasizes learned behavior and conditioning.

• Humanistic Perspective: Advocates for free will and self-actualization (Maslow and Rogers).

• Cognitive Perspective: Studies mental functions like memory and problem-solving.

• Sociocultural Perspective: Examines social and cultural influences on behavior.

• Biopsychological Perspective: Links biological influences to behavior.

• Evolutionary Perspective: Examines how behavior aids survival.

Types of Psychological Professionals

• Psychologist: Academic experts with varied specializations in research and clinical work.

• Psychiatrist: Medical doctors specializing in mental health.

• Psychiatric Social Worker: Focuses on environmental impacts on mental health, with therapy training.

Research and Scientific Method

• Steps:

  1. Define the question.

  2. Formulate a hypothesis.

  3. Test the hypothesis.

  4. Analyze results.

  5. Report and replicate findings.

Descriptive Methods

Naturalistic Observation

• Advantages: Realistic behavior.

• Disadvantages: Observer effects, bias, and uniqueness of settings.

Case Studies

• Definition: In-depth study of a single subject.

• Example: Phineas Gage.

Surveys

• Usage: Gathering data from large populations; important to ensure a representative sample.

Correlational Technique

• Definition: Measures the relationship between two variables.

• Correlation Coefficient (r): Ranges from -1.00 to +1.00 indicating the strength and direction of the relationship.

  • Positive correlation: both variables increase or decrease together.

  • Negative correlation: one variable increases as the other decreases.

Experimental Design

• Experiment: Attempts to demonstrate cause-and-effect through manipulation of variables.

• Key Concepts:

  • Independent Variable (IV): The manipulated element.

  • Dependent Variable (DV): Measured response.

  • Control Groups avert influence from confounding variables.

  • Random Assignment helps eliminate confounding variables.

Placebo and Experimenter Effects

• Placebo Effect: Expectations influence behaviors.

• Experimental effects: Researchers’ expectations may unintentionally affect results.

• Methods to Control:

  • Single-blind studies: Participants unaware of group assignment.

  • Double-blind studies: Both participants and researchers unaware.

Ethics in Psychological Research

• Key Principles:

  1. Balancing rights vs. scientific value.

  2. Informed consent from participants.

  3. Justifying deception.

  4. The right to withdraw at any time.

  5. Confidentiality of data.

  6. Responsible care for potential harm.

• Animal Research: Ethical guidelines aim to minimize stress and pain, focused on necessity.

Critical Thinking

• Definition: The process of making reasoned judgments based on evidence.

• Core Criteria:

  1. Question established “truths”.

  2. Assess evidence quality.

  3. Authority does not equate to truth.

  4. Maintain an open mind in evaluation.