chapter 13: social psychology
13.1 Introduction: Living with Others
Background:
Perceived Independence vs. Actual Influence:
Most people believe they make independent choices.
However, individuals often underestimate the influence of others on their behavior.
Experimental Setup:
Objective:
Assess differences in response time to perceived danger in group vs. individual settings.
Scenario:
Participants recruited for a discussion group on online shopping.
Manipulated conditions: waiting alone vs. with unresponsive confederates.
Situation:
Smoke gradually seeped into the room, simulating a fire hazard.
Findings:
Response Time:
Alone: Participants quickly recognized the danger and exited (<1 min).
Group: Participants hesitated significantly longer (13 min on average).
Delay in group condition would have been fatal in a real fire scenario.
Group Influence:
Participants sought validation from group members.
Non-responsive group members influenced participants' behavior.
Only one participant resisted group pressure and attempted to convince others of the danger.
Implications:
Social Cues and Conformity:
Participants relied on social cues to assess the situation.
Non-responsive group members led to conformity, even in the presence of a clear danger signal.
Relevance of Original Research:
Study replicates findings from Latane and Darley's (1968) research on group influence.
Demonstrates enduring effects of group conformity over time.
Conclusion:
Significance of Social Context:
Understanding human behavior requires consideration of social influences.
Conformity to group norms can override individual judgment, even in critical situations.
The study underscores the importance of social dynamics in shaping behavior and highlights the enduring relevance of research on conformity.
Conformity:
Definition:
Adjusting one's behavior or beliefs to align with those of a group or societal norm.
Characteristics:
Occurs due to social pressure or the desire for acceptance.
Can lead individuals to adopt attitudes or behaviors that may differ from their own beliefs or preferences.
Example:
Participants delaying their response to a perceived danger in the presence of non-responsive group members.
Confederates:
Definition:
Individuals who are part of an experiment but are not actual participants; they are working with the researcher to manipulate the experimental conditions.
Characteristics:
Tasked with specific roles or behaviors to create certain conditions in the experiment.
Often employed to simulate social situations or interactions.
Example:
Paid actors instructed to remain non-responsive to the simulated danger of smoke in the experiment, influencing participants' behavior through their lack of reaction
13.2.1 Attribution Theory
Attributions in Interpretation of Behavior:
Two basic attributions:
Dispositional/internal causes.
Situational/external causes.
Interpretation depends on various factors.
Dispositional/Internal Causes:
Encompass personality traits and individual characteristics.
Example: attributing behavior to someone's inherent qualities.
Situational/External Causes:
Result from environmental factors and circumstances.
Example: attributing behavior to external influences or context.
Tendency in Attributions:
More likely to attribute others' behavior to dispositional causes.
More inclined to attribute our own behavior to situational causes.
Example:
Late arrival to a movie:
Likely to attribute to situational causes (e.g., traffic, lost keys).
Late arrival of a date:
Prone to attributing to dispositional causes (e.g., lack of interest, prioritization).
Kelley's Covariation Model (1967):
Asserts that a single exposure to a person is insufficient for accurate attributions.
Multiple observations of behavior over time and in various contexts are necessary to assess the source of another's behavior.
Factors in Attribution:
Consistency:
Examines how consistently a person behaves in the same situation over time.
Distinctiveness:
Considers whether a person's behavior is similar or distinct across different situations or contexts.
Consensus:
Compares the extent to which an individual's behavior aligns with the behavior of others in the same situation.
Attribution Outcomes:
Internal Attributions:
Made when a person exhibits high consistency in behavior across time and low distinctiveness across situations, regardless of consensus.
External Attributions:
Made when a person's behavior is consistent across situations but also distinct from others' behavior and there is high consensus.
Example:
Internal attribution:
A person consistently arrives late to work (high consistency) regardless of the situation (low distinctiveness) and others' punctuality (low consensus).
External attribution:
A person arrives late to work (high consistency) but is usually punctual for other events (high distinctiveness), and most colleagues also arrive late occasionally (high consensus).
Research Support:
Orvis et al. (1975) supported Kelley's model, highlighting the role of consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus in attribution processes.
Category | Example 1 | Example 2 |
|---|---|---|
Consensus | Jacob is the only one who likes the history class. | Most students (including Jacob) like the history class. |
Distinctiveness | Jacob likes most of the classes he takes. | Jacob enjoys the history class, but not other classes. |
Consistency | Jacob enjoys the history class throughout the semester. | Jacob enjoys the history class throughout the semester. |
Attribution | Internal | External |
Conclusion | Jacob likes his classes and probably learning. | The history class is an all-around great class. |
Consistency:
Student X consistently arrives late to class, with lateness increasing from 5 to 20 minutes over the first few weeks.
This consistency in behavior suggests a pattern of tardiness that persists over time.
Distinctiveness:
Student X's behavior is distinct to the specific context of the classroom setting, where lateness and inappropriate behavior occur.
However, there is evidence to suggest that Student X's behavior is inconsistent with her usual behavior in previous semesters, where she was punctual and engaged in class activities.
Consensus:
Consensus refers to whether others behave similarly in the given situation.
Other students vocalize frustration with Student X's behavior, indicating that her actions are not typical or accepted by the group.
However, consensus is not uniform, as Student X's friend informs the professor of her extenuating circumstances, suggesting that not all students may be aware of her personal challenges.
Based on these components, we can make attributions about Student X's behavior:
Initially, the professor may have attributed Student X's tardiness and inappropriate behavior to internal/dispositional causes, such as poor organization or time management skills.
However, with additional information about Student X's external/situational factors, such as her responsibilities caring for her sister's children after their father's death, the professor may reconsider their initial attributions.
The new information suggests that Student X's behavior may be influenced by external factors beyond her control, such as familial responsibilities and time constraints.
The professor's awareness of Student X's personal challenges may lead to a more nuanced understanding of her behavior, recognizing the interplay between internal and external factors.
13.2.2 Fundamental Attribution Error
Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE):
Definition:
The tendency to attribute others' behavior to dispositional/internal causes rather than environmental/external causes.
Example:
Assuming someone's tardiness is due to laziness rather than traffic.
Actor-Observer Bias:
Definition:
The tendency to attribute internal causes to others' behavior and external causes to our own behavior.
Example:
Attributing a colleague's mistake to incompetence while attributing our own mistake to external factors like stress.
Self-Serving Bias:
Definition:
The tendency to attribute successes to internal causes and failures to external causes to preserve self-esteem.
Example:
Attributing exam success to intelligence and hard work but attributing exam failure to a difficult test or bad teaching.
Group-Level Self-Serving Bias:
Definition:
The self-serving bias operating at the group level, where wins are attributed to group superiority and losses to external factors.
Example:
Claiming victory as a personal achievement but blaming losses on external factors like cheating or unfair refereeing.
False Consensus Effect:
Definition:
The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.
Example:
Assuming that everyone shares your political views or preferences because you believe them to be correct and valid.
Fallibility in Attribution:
People often make incorrect judgments in attributing behavior.
Additional errors include the false consensus effect, where people assume their beliefs are more widely shared than they actually are.
13.2.3 Impression Formation
Impression Formation:
Definition:
The process of forming opinions about individuals or groups.
Influenced by initial available information.
First Impressions and the Primacy Effect:
Definition:
The tendency to give more weight to initial information when forming impressions.
Once an initial impression is formed, subsequent information receives decreasing attention.
First impressions tend to be enduring and are typically formed within seconds of meeting someone.
Negative Bias in First Impressions:
Negative information is given more weight than positive information.
Negative information received first capitalizes on the primacy effect, influencing overall impression formation.
Confirmation Bias:
Definition:
The tendency to seek, interpret, and remember information that confirms our preexisting beliefs or impressions.
We attend to and process information consistent with our initial impression while ignoring or discarding contradictory evidence.
Cultural Differences in Primacy Effects:
Primacy effects in impression formation can vary across cultures.
In Western cultures, primacy effects strongly impact impression formation.
Research comparing primacy effects between individuals from the United States and Japan found that Japanese participants were less influenced by primacy effects in impression formation.
13.3 Behaving in the Presence of Others
Observe Others:
As mentioned, one effective strategy is to observe the behavior of others around you. Pay attention to how they use utensils, interact with the napkin, and engage in conversation. By observing their actions, you can emulate their behavior and align with social norms.
Follow the Lead:
Follow the lead of the executives or other individuals who appear confident and knowledgeable in their conduct. If you're unsure about which utensil to use or how to use the napkin, wait for cues from others and mimic their behavior.
Stay Calm and Confident:
Remember to stay calm and composed, even if you feel anxious or uncertain. Confidence in your demeanor can help create a positive impression, regardless of any minor slip-ups in etiquette.
Ask for Guidance:
If you're still unsure about certain aspects of formal dining etiquette, don't hesitate to discreetly ask for guidance. You can politely inquire about the proper use of utensils or the etiquette surrounding the napkin. Most people will appreciate your desire to adhere to social norms.
Practice Beforehand:
If possible, familiarize yourself with formal dining etiquette beforehand through research or practice sessions. This can help boost your confidence and alleviate anxiety about making a social blunder during the interview dinner.
Focus on the Conversation:
While it's important to adhere to social norms, remember that the primary focus of the dinner is likely the conversation and interaction with the executives. Pay attention to engaging in meaningful conversation and showcasing your qualifications for the job.
social influence
Definition:
Social influence refers to the process by which our thoughts and actions are shaped by the presence of others.
Influence on Behavior:
People behave differently in the presence of others, especially in ambiguous situations where social norms are unclear.
Individuals often look to others for cues on how to behave and conform to group norms.
Conformity and Ambiguity:
In ambiguous situations, people are more likely to behave in ways consistent with those around them.
Everyday decisions are often influenced by social norms, even if individuals are unaware of their conformity.
Example:
In a formal dining setting during an important interview, individuals may look to others for cues on proper etiquette to avoid social blunders.
Strategies for Managing Social Influence:
Observing others' behavior, following their lead, staying calm and confident, asking for guidance discreetly, practicing beforehand, and focusing on meaningful conversation can help navigate social influence in various contexts.
13.3.1 Social Norms
Definition of Social Norms:
Social norms are prescribed behaviors that vary across contexts, cultures, and time period
ds.
Variation Across Situations:
Social norms change depending on the situation. For example, behavior at a sporting event differs from behavior in a library.
Cultural Variation:
Social norms vary across cultures, with individualistic cultures emphasizing individual gains and collectivist cultures prioritizing the group's benefit.
Examples include differences between Western individualistic societies and Asian collectivist societies.
Influence of Technology on Social Norms:
Technological advancements can influence social norms. For example, changes in literature search processes due to the advent of the internet have impacted academic practices.
Changes Over Time:
Social norms evolve over time and across generations. For instance, the use of technology in classrooms has changed norms around note-taking and distractions.
Social Influence in Uncertain Situations:
In uncertain situations, individuals often rely on social cues from others to guide their behavior.
This can sometimes lead to mistaken interpretations, such as in the example of mistaking a group's behavior as a sign of a zombie apocalypse.
13.3.2 Conformity
Researcher and Experiment:
Solomon Asch conducted a conformity experiment in the early 1950s to empirically test how the presence of others influences conformity.
Definition of Conformity:
Conformity refers to the extent to which individuals modify their behavior to align with the behavior of others in a group.
Experimental Setup:
Participants were asked to complete a visual judgment exercise where they had to compare the length of a standard line to three comparison lines.
Unbeknownst to the participants, the other individuals present were research assistants (confederates) working with the experimenter.
Objective of the Experiment:
Asch was not interested in accuracy but rather in how likely participants were to conform to an obviously incorrect choice made by the confederates.
Procedure:
Each of the six confederates took turns announcing their choice of which comparison line was most similar in length to the standard line.
Experimental Setup:
Participants were asked to complete a visual judgment exercise where they had to compare the length of a standard line to three comparison lines.
Unbeknownst to the participant, the other individuals present were research assistants (confederates) instructed to unanimously provide incorrect answers.
Decision Dilemma:
Participants faced a dilemma when they observed all confederates giving the same incorrect answer.
They had to decide whether to conform to the group's incorrect response or assert their own judgment.
Findings:
Asch found that 75% of participants conformed to an obviously incorrect answer at least once during the experiment.
Over the 12 conformity trials, participants conformed 37% of the time.
The size of the group influenced conformity, with increased conformity observed when the number of confederates increased from one to three.
Neto (1995):
Found that undergraduate students demonstrated conformity levels similar to Asch's original findings.
Conformity levels were higher with larger group sizes and decreased familiarity with the task or situation.
Bond & Smith (1996):
Found that conformity rates continue to be higher with larger group sizes.
Conformity rates differ based on individual characteristics such as gender and personality traits.
Women tend to have higher rates of agreement to incorrect responses than men.
Personality traits like locus of control (LOC) also affect conformity, with those having an external LOC being more likely to conform.
Amir (1982):
Replicated Asch's original experiment in Kuwaiti culture and found consistent results, indicating the universality of the "Asch effect."
Meta-analysis by Bond & Smith (1996):
Concluded that conformity in Western cultures persists over time but has gradually decreased.
Collectivist cultures show significantly higher levels of conformity compared to individualistic cultures.
13.3.2.1 Groupthink
Definition: Groupthink, coined by Irving Janis (1972), refers to a phenomenon where groups prioritize consensus and conformity over critical thinking and divergent opinions, leading to poor decision-making.
Components of Groupthink:
Overestimating the Group: Members believe in the inherent invulnerability and morality of the group's decisions.
Closed-mindedness: Group members exhibit collective rationalization and hold stereotyped views of out-groups.
Pressure for Uniformity: Dissenters face direct pressure, self-censorship occurs, and there's an illusion of unanimity; mindguards suppress dissenting opinions.
Examples:
Pearl Harbor Attack (1941): Despite warnings of an impending attack, military officials at Pearl Harbor failed to take pre-emptive action due to groupthink. They overestimated the strength of the United States and closed their minds to the threat from Japan.
Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster (1986): Engineers raised concerns about faulty O-rings before the Challenger launch, but their warnings were ignored due to groupthink. The belief in the success of previous shuttle flights and a false sense of invulnerability led to the tragic decision to proceed with the launch.
Characteristic | Description |
|---|---|
Illusion of invulnerability | Excess optimism that increases risk-taking (Nothing could possibly go wrong) |
Collective rationalization | Minimize and/or disregard the warning of others |
Belief in inherent morality | Belief that the group is looking out for the greater good |
Stereotyped views | Hold negative views of out-groups and have high in-group favoritism |
Direct pressure on dissenters | Group members are pressured to conform and not express diverging ideas/opinions (We all agree and no one cares what you think, so keep quiet) |
Self-censorship | The illusion of a united front makes members think that their ideas are incorrect/wrong. |
Illusion of unanimity | The group appears unanimous because dissenting views are not considered. (Everyone agrees so there is nothing to discuss) |
Self-appointed ‘mindguards’ | Some group members want to protect the leader and the group by enforcing group cohesiveness and quashing dissenting ideas. |
13.3.3 Obedience to Authority
Obedience to Authority: Stanley Milgram's famous experiment in the 1960s highlighted how ordinary people could commit acts against their moral judgment when instructed by an authority figure. In Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler and the Nazi hierarchy served as the supreme authority, and their orders were often followed without question due to a perceived duty to obey.
Dehumanization: The Nazis systematically dehumanized Jews and other targeted groups, portraying them as subhuman in propaganda. This psychological distancing allowed perpetrators to rationalize their actions as they no longer perceived their victims as fellow human beings with feelings and rights.
Diffusion of Responsibility: In large bureaucratic structures like those of Nazi Germany, responsibility for actions can become diffuse. Individuals may feel less personal responsibility for outcomes when actions are divided among several people or nested within a complex organizational structure.
Conformity and the Power of the Group: As demonstrated by Solomon Asch's experiments, individuals tend to conform to group norms. In the context of Nazi Germany, nationalistic fervor, peer pressure, and the desire to belong could have further motivated individuals to align with the majority and participate in or support atrocities.
Fear of Punishment: Many Germans feared reprisals from the Nazi government if they were perceived as dissenters or non-conformists. This fear extended beyond personal harm to include threats to their families, which could coerce even reluctant individuals into compliance.
Incremental Escalation: The severity of Nazi policies escalated gradually over several years, which can desensitize individuals and normalize extreme measures. What began as discrimination and political repression slowly expanded into encompassing more severe and eventually genocidal actions.
13.3.3.1 The Milgram Experiments
Authority of the Experimenter: The presence of an authoritative figure in a lab coat, representing a prestigious institution like Yale University, plays a critical role. The authority attributed to the experimenter increases participants' willingness to follow instructions, even if those instructions lead to the infliction of pain on another person.
Gradual Escalation: The shock levels increase gradually, which might make it easier for participants to justify the next level of shock. This step-by-step escalation can desensitize participants to the consequences of their actions.
Pre-defined Roles: Participants are assigned the role of 'teacher', which comes with expectations to follow the rules of the experiment. This role-playing detaches individuals from their personal ethical standards.
Dehumanization: The physical separation between the teacher and learner, combined with the use of a communication system (intercom), reduces the empathetic connection a teacher might feel towards the learner. The learner becomes an abstract concept rather than a real human suffering from shocks.
Commitment: Having agreed to participate in the study, and having started administering shocks, participants might feel a need to complete the task they agreed to undertake. This sense of commitment can be a powerful motivator to continue obeying orders.
Lack of direct confrontation: The experimental setup shields the teacher from directly witnessing the pain they cause. The remote administration of shocks via a panel makes the act less personal and reduces the emotional impact on the teacher.
Social Pressure and Expectations: Being in a controlled environment where the expectation is to obey can significantly impact one's actions. The participant might feel that disobedience would upset the experimenter or disrupt the purpose of the study.
Participants showed significant stress, indicating that they were aware and affected by the moral implications of their actions. The appearance of nervous laughter, signs of anxiety, and even physical symptoms like seizures underscore the internal conflict between obeying authority and acting according to personal moral judgments.
Milgram's experiment, while groundbreaking, raised serious ethical questions regarding the psychological impact on participants who believed they were harming others. This led to changes in how psychological experiments are conducted, particularly those involving deception and potential harm to participants.
The results and methods of Milgram's study continue to be a cornerstone in understanding obedience and have profound implications for education, psychology, and even the understanding of historical events like the Holocaust. The experiment underscores the need for ethical vigilance and personal responsibility, particularly in situations where authority figures are involved.
Prompt Hierarchy | Verbal Prompts |
|---|---|
Prompt 1 | Please continue, or Please go on. |
Prompt 2 | The experiment requires that you continue. |
Prompt 3 | It is absolutely essential that you continue. |
Prompt 4 | You have no other choice, you must go on. |
Role of Environment: The change from a prestigious university setting to a more mundane warehouse location resulted in a decrease in obedience. This suggests that the perceived legitimacy of the environment reinforces authority. A prestigious setting like Yale may confer a higher degree of perceived legitimacy and authority than a common warehouse, affecting participant behavior.
Proximity to Consequences: When the physical distance between the teacher and the learner decreased, so did obedience. This indicates that closer proximity to the consequences of one's actions increases empathy or discomfort, which in turn reduces the likelihood of harming others. The direct interaction, such as physically placing the learner's arm on a shock plate, makes the consequences of one’s actions more immediate and real, thus lowering obedience.
Visual and Physical Cues: Seeing the pain or distress of others can invoke empathetic responses that are powerful enough to override authority obedience. This highlights the importance of empathy in ethical decision-making and behavior.
Milgram’s experiments, while illuminating, raise profound ethical questions:
Informed Consent: Participants were deceived about the nature of the experiment. This deception is critical to the experiment's design but raises concerns about the ethical treatment of participants.
Psychological Harm: The distress exhibited by participants suggests that the experiments could have had long-lasting psychological effects. Ensuring the psychological well-being of participants is a fundamental ethical requirement in research.
These experiments also provide a framework for understanding broader societal issues:
Authority in Everyday Life: The tendency to obey authority figures can be seen in various aspects of society, including in the workplace, schools, and within the legal system. Understanding the limits and influences of authority can help foster better practices in governance, education, and law enforcement.
Moral Responsibility and Authority: The experiments underscore the complex relationship between individual moral agency and authority. They challenge individuals and societies to think about how authority is exercised and questioned.
Military and Law Enforcement Training: Training that emphasizes blind obedience may need to be reevaluated to incorporate ethical decision-making skills that enable individuals to question immoral orders
13.3.5 The Bystander Effect
Incident Details: Attacked in Queens, NY; bystanders reportedly did not intervene.
Historical Impact: Led to heightened interest and research into what is now called the bystander effect.
Definition: The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present.
Reasons for Non-intervention:
Diffusion of Responsibility: Responsibility is shared among all witnesses, leading to less individual accountability.
Pluralistic Ignorance: Bystanders assume their own inaction is the correct response based on the inaction of others.
Bibb Latané and Judith Rodin (1969) - "Lady in Distress"
When alone, 70% of participants offered help.
With others present, assistance rates dropped (40% with another participant, 7% with a passive observer).
High Helping Rates in Latin Cultures: Attributes such as 'simpatia' or 'simpatico' promote a friendly, helpful demeanor, increasing the likelihood of intervention.
Context: Effectiveness of help varied based on the perceived condition of the person (drunk vs. sick).
Findings:
The "sick" individual received help 95% of the time, quickly and regardless of race.
The "drunk" individual received help 50% of the time, typically only from bystanders of the same race.
Perceived Danger: More dangerous situations see less intervention.
Presence of a Perpetrator: Reduces likelihood of bystander help.
Requirement for Physical Action: More direct physical intervention is less likely than non-physical help.
Everyday Experiments: Students may drop books to observe bystander reactions.
Emergency Situations: Directing a specific person to call for help (e.g., “You in the purple hoodie, call 911”) is more effective than a general plea for assistance.
Influence of Visible Blood: The presence of blood can deter help due to fear of infection or personal disgust.
CPR Reluctance: Individuals are less likely to perform CPR if there are bodily fluids present.
Overview: Analyzed bystander behavior across decades, confirming trends such as reduced help in dangerous situations or when a perpetrator is present.
Small Towns vs. Urban Areas: Higher likelihood of intervention in smaller, less anonymous settings due to familiar faces and stronger communal ties
13.4.2 Stereotypes
Definition of Stereotypes: Stereotypes are simplified and generalized beliefs about a group based on their perceived common characteristics. These beliefs can be positive, negative, or neutral but often involve oversimplification.
Examples of Stereotypes:
Age: Older adults are often stereotyped as being slow or technologically inept.
Gender: Men are stereotyped as being less emotional, while women are stereotyped as being less competent in STEM fields.
Race and Ethnicity: Different ethnic groups may be stereotyped based on perceived traits or behaviors.
Kernel of Truth: Some stereotypes originate from observable trends within groups, but the generalization to all members of the group is where inaccuracies and prejudices form.
Stereotype Threat:
Definition: The fear that one's behavior will confirm existing stereotypes about one's group, potentially leading to anxiety and reduced performance.
Impact on Performance: This can affect academic performance, professional interactions, and even social behavior.
Example: Women performing poorly on math tests when reminded of the stereotype that women are worse at math than men.
Homogeneity vs. Heterogeneity:
Out-group Homogeneity Effect: The tendency to view members of an out-group as more similar to each other than they really are.
In-group Differentiation: The tendency to perceive members of one’s own group as more varied and distinct.
Perpetuation of Stereotypes:
Media Influence: Stereotypes are often reinforced by media representations, which tend to highlight and exaggerate certain traits for dramatic or comedic effect.
Socialization: From a young age, individuals learn to categorize based on visible and invisible traits, perpetuating stereotypes.
Challenges in Overcoming Stereotypes:
Cognitive Biases: Stereotypes are easy mental shortcuts used to quickly make sense of complex social information.
Cultural Endorsement: Societal norms and values can embed certain stereotypes deeply within a culture.
Strategies for Reducing Stereotypes:
Education and Awareness: Promoting understanding of the diversity within groups and the inaccuracies of overgeneralization.
Intergroup Contact: Encouraging direct interaction between groups to break down stereotypes and build empathy.
Counter-Stereotypic Information: Presenting information that goes against common stereotypes can help in reshaping opinions.
13.4.3 Prejudice
Function of Stereotyping:
Cognitive Efficiency: Stereotypes simplify the complex information of social environments, allowing for quicker decision-making.
Prediction of Behavior: Helps in anticipating how individuals from certain groups might behave based on generalized beliefs.
Positive and Negative Stereotypes:
Positive Stereotypes: Some stereotypes attribute desirable qualities to certain groups (e.g., Asians are good at math, elderly people are wise).
Negative Stereotypes: Often involve detrimental or derogatory beliefs (e.g., younger people are irresponsible, wealthy people are greedy).
Definition of Prejudice:
Affective Nature: Unlike stereotypes, which are cognitive, prejudice is an affective response involving feelings towards a group.
Inherently Negative: Always involves negative attitudes and emotions towards members of a specific group.
Examples of Prejudice:
Racism: Prejudiced attitudes towards people based on race or ethnicity.
Sexism: Negative beliefs and discrimination towards individuals based on gender.
Homophobia: Hostility towards individuals who identify as or are perceived to be homosexual.
Social Learning:
Family Influence: Attitudes and prejudices are often learned early in life from parents and caregivers through direct communication or observation.
Peer Influence: As individuals grow, peers play a significant role in reinforcing or challenging these early learned prejudices.
Media and Cultural Influence:
Media Representation: Media can perpetuate stereotypes and prejudices by consistently depicting groups in a certain way.
Cultural Norms: Societal values and norms can embed prejudices deep within a community's collective consciousness.
Psychological Mechanisms:
Confirmation Bias: Individuals tend to seek out information that confirms their preexisting beliefs and ignore contradictory evidence.
In-group Favoritism and Out-group Hostility: People prefer their own group (in-group) and have negative attitudes towards others (out-group).
Education and Awareness:
Critical Thinking: Teaching critical thinking skills can help individuals question and dismantle stereotypes and prejudices.
Cultural Competence: Education programs that emphasize understanding and respecting diversity.
Interpersonal and Intergroup Contact:
Direct Interaction: Positive, meaningful interactions between members of different groups can reduce prejudices.
Shared Goals: Cooperative activities with shared objectives can foster intergroup solidarity and reduce biases.
Institutional Support:
Policies and Regulations: Enforcing anti-discrimination laws and promoting equal opportunities for all groups.
Supportive Environments: Creating environments in schools, workplaces, and communities that support diversity and inclusion.
13.4.4 Discrimination
Prejudice:
Definition: Prejudice refers to preconceived attitudes and beliefs about a group that are often not based on reason or actual experience.
Nature: Affective; involves emotions and attitudes.
Discrimination:
Definition: Discrimination involves actions or behaviors that exclude, restrict, or distinguish against individuals based on group affiliation.
Nature: Behavioral; entails actual actions taken against individuals or groups.
Legal Prohibitions Against Discrimination:
Workplace Laws: In the U.S., it is illegal to discriminate on the basis of gender, disability, age, race, religion, color, and country of origin.
Expansion of Rights: Increasing legal protections against discrimination based on sexual preference, though gaps remain, particularly for the LGBTQ+ community.
Historical Prejudices Leading to Laws:
Origins of Anti-Discrimination Laws: Stem from a long history of systemic prejudice and discrimination.
Ongoing Issues: Despite laws, discrimination persists, influenced by both overt biases and more subtle systemic factors.
Scapegoat Theory:
Definition: Proposes that prejudice stems from the need to blame others for one's own problems or inadequacies.
Application: Often seen in urban settings where minority groups may direct prejudice and discrimination toward other, even less powerful, minorities.
Realistic Conflict Theory:
Definition: Suggests that competition over scarce resources leads to intergroup conflicts.
Sherif’s Robbers Cave Experiment (1956):
Context: Conflict created between two groups of boys during a camp, escalating to hostility.
Resolution: Demonstrated that cooperation towards common goals can reduce intergroup hostility and promote positive intergroup relations.
Interdependence in Achieving Common Goals:
Practical Application: Encouraging situations where groups must collaborate to achieve shared objectives can diminish perceptions of 'us vs. them'.
Supporting Evidence: Successful reduction of conflict in controlled experiments like the Robbers Cave.
Equal Status Contact:
Theory: Contact hypothesis suggests that under conditions of equality, intergroup contact can reduce prejudice.
Implementation: Creating environments and opportunities where individuals from different groups interact as equals.
13.4.5 Interpersonal Attraction
Physical Attractiveness:
Research Finding (Walster et al., 1966): Participants overwhelmingly chose to go on a second date based solely on their date's physical attractiveness.
Online Dating: Physical appearance is a compelling determinant in selecting profiles.
Social Media Influence:
Connection vs. Depth: While social media facilitates connections, relationships formed are not necessarily deep or meaningful.
Quantity vs. Quality: Having hundreds of social media "friends" raises questions about the depth of these relationships.
Traditional Factors:
Similarity: People tend to like others who share similar ideologies and interests.
Proximity: Physical nearness plays a significant role in forming friendships and relationships.
Mere Exposure Effect: Increased exposure to a person leads to greater liking, regardless of other factors (Zajonc, 1968).
Assumed Positive Traits: Attractive individuals are often assumed to possess positive personality traits.
Association with Positive Characteristics: Beauty is strongly linked with positive attributes, contributing to initial attraction and likability.
13.5.2 Prosocial Behaviors/Altruism
Definition: Altruism involves engaging in behaviors to benefit others without expecting anything in return. It encompasses voluntary acts of kindness and selflessness.
Variability: Prosocial behaviors can range from small gestures like holding a door to significant acts like risking one's life to save another.
Cross-Species Behavior: Altruism is observed in various animal species, indicating its evolutionary significance beyond humans.
Definition: Reciprocal altruism, proposed by Trivers (1971), involves acts of kindness with the expectation of future reciprocation. It differs from pure altruism in its underlying motives.
Evolutionary Perspective: Reciprocal altruism suggests that altruistic behaviors have evolved over time due to their adaptive value.
Gender Roles: Traditional gender roles influence expectations regarding altruism, with women often expected to exhibit more nurturing and caring behaviors.
Sex-Typed Individuals: Those who conform to traditional gender roles (e.g., feminine women, masculine men) are perceived as more altruistic.
Androgynous Characteristics: Individuals with both feminine and masculine traits are perceived more positively overall and rated as more attractive.
Cognition and Altruism: Intuition plays a significant role in promoting altruism, especially in women, while men tend to deliberate before offering help.
Berman et al. (2015): Reporting acts of altruism may be perceived negatively if viewed as bragging, especially when the audience is already aware of the altruistic behaviors.
Rand et al. (2016): Gender differences in altruistic behavior are influenced by factors such as gender roles and the use of intuition vs. deliberation.
13.1 Introduction: Living with Others
Background:
Perceived Independence vs. Actual Influence:
Most people believe they make independent choices.
However, individuals often underestimate the influence of others on their behavior.
Experimental Setup:
Objective:
Assess differences in response time to perceived danger in group vs. individual settings.
Scenario:
Participants recruited for a discussion group on online shopping.
Manipulated conditions: waiting alone vs. with unresponsive confederates.
Situation:
Smoke gradually seeped into the room, simulating a fire hazard.
Findings:
Response Time:
Alone: Participants quickly recognized the danger and exited (<1 min).
Group: Participants hesitated significantly longer (13 min on average).
Delay in group condition would have been fatal in a real fire scenario.
Group Influence:
Participants sought validation from group members.
Non-responsive group members influenced participants' behavior.
Only one participant resisted group pressure and attempted to convince others of the danger.
Implications:
Social Cues and Conformity:
Participants relied on social cues to assess the situation.
Non-responsive group members led to conformity, even in the presence of a clear danger signal.
Relevance of Original Research:
Study replicates findings from Latane and Darley's (1968) research on group influence.
Demonstrates enduring effects of group conformity over time.
Conclusion:
Significance of Social Context:
Understanding human behavior requires consideration of social influences.
Conformity to group norms can override individual judgment, even in critical situations.
The study underscores the importance of social dynamics in shaping behavior and highlights the enduring relevance of research on conformity.
Conformity:
Definition:
Adjusting one's behavior or beliefs to align with those of a group or societal norm.
Characteristics:
Occurs due to social pressure or the desire for acceptance.
Can lead individuals to adopt attitudes or behaviors that may differ from their own beliefs or preferences.
Example:
Participants delaying their response to a perceived danger in the presence of non-responsive group members.
Confederates:
Definition:
Individuals who are part of an experiment but are not actual participants; they are working with the researcher to manipulate the experimental conditions.
Characteristics:
Tasked with specific roles or behaviors to create certain conditions in the experiment.
Often employed to simulate social situations or interactions.
Example:
Paid actors instructed to remain non-responsive to the simulated danger of smoke in the experiment, influencing participants' behavior through their lack of reaction
13.2.1 Attribution Theory
Attributions in Interpretation of Behavior:
Two basic attributions:
Dispositional/internal causes.
Situational/external causes.
Interpretation depends on various factors.
Dispositional/Internal Causes:
Encompass personality traits and individual characteristics.
Example: attributing behavior to someone's inherent qualities.
Situational/External Causes:
Result from environmental factors and circumstances.
Example: attributing behavior to external influences or context.
Tendency in Attributions:
More likely to attribute others' behavior to dispositional causes.
More inclined to attribute our own behavior to situational causes.
Example:
Late arrival to a movie:
Likely to attribute to situational causes (e.g., traffic, lost keys).
Late arrival of a date:
Prone to attributing to dispositional causes (e.g., lack of interest, prioritization).
Kelley's Covariation Model (1967):
Asserts that a single exposure to a person is insufficient for accurate attributions.
Multiple observations of behavior over time and in various contexts are necessary to assess the source of another's behavior.
Factors in Attribution:
Consistency:
Examines how consistently a person behaves in the same situation over time.
Distinctiveness:
Considers whether a person's behavior is similar or distinct across different situations or contexts.
Consensus:
Compares the extent to which an individual's behavior aligns with the behavior of others in the same situation.
Attribution Outcomes:
Internal Attributions:
Made when a person exhibits high consistency in behavior across time and low distinctiveness across situations, regardless of consensus.
External Attributions:
Made when a person's behavior is consistent across situations but also distinct from others' behavior and there is high consensus.
Example:
Internal attribution:
A person consistently arrives late to work (high consistency) regardless of the situation (low distinctiveness) and others' punctuality (low consensus).
External attribution:
A person arrives late to work (high consistency) but is usually punctual for other events (high distinctiveness), and most colleagues also arrive late occasionally (high consensus).
Research Support:
Orvis et al. (1975) supported Kelley's model, highlighting the role of consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus in attribution processes.
Category | Example 1 | Example 2 |
|---|---|---|
Consensus | Jacob is the only one who likes the history class. | Most students (including Jacob) like the history class. |
Distinctiveness | Jacob likes most of the classes he takes. | Jacob enjoys the history class, but not other classes. |
Consistency | Jacob enjoys the history class throughout the semester. | Jacob enjoys the history class throughout the semester. |
Attribution | Internal | External |
Conclusion | Jacob likes his classes and probably learning. | The history class is an all-around great class. |
Consistency:
Student X consistently arrives late to class, with lateness increasing from 5 to 20 minutes over the first few weeks.
This consistency in behavior suggests a pattern of tardiness that persists over time.
Distinctiveness:
Student X's behavior is distinct to the specific context of the classroom setting, where lateness and inappropriate behavior occur.
However, there is evidence to suggest that Student X's behavior is inconsistent with her usual behavior in previous semesters, where she was punctual and engaged in class activities.
Consensus:
Consensus refers to whether others behave similarly in the given situation.
Other students vocalize frustration with Student X's behavior, indicating that her actions are not typical or accepted by the group.
However, consensus is not uniform, as Student X's friend informs the professor of her extenuating circumstances, suggesting that not all students may be aware of her personal challenges.
Based on these components, we can make attributions about Student X's behavior:
Initially, the professor may have attributed Student X's tardiness and inappropriate behavior to internal/dispositional causes, such as poor organization or time management skills.
However, with additional information about Student X's external/situational factors, such as her responsibilities caring for her sister's children after their father's death, the professor may reconsider their initial attributions.
The new information suggests that Student X's behavior may be influenced by external factors beyond her control, such as familial responsibilities and time constraints.
The professor's awareness of Student X's personal challenges may lead to a more nuanced understanding of her behavior, recognizing the interplay between internal and external factors.
13.2.2 Fundamental Attribution Error
Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE):
Definition:
The tendency to attribute others' behavior to dispositional/internal causes rather than environmental/external causes.
Example:
Assuming someone's tardiness is due to laziness rather than traffic.
Actor-Observer Bias:
Definition:
The tendency to attribute internal causes to others' behavior and external causes to our own behavior.
Example:
Attributing a colleague's mistake to incompetence while attributing our own mistake to external factors like stress.
Self-Serving Bias:
Definition:
The tendency to attribute successes to internal causes and failures to external causes to preserve self-esteem.
Example:
Attributing exam success to intelligence and hard work but attributing exam failure to a difficult test or bad teaching.
Group-Level Self-Serving Bias:
Definition:
The self-serving bias operating at the group level, where wins are attributed to group superiority and losses to external factors.
Example:
Claiming victory as a personal achievement but blaming losses on external factors like cheating or unfair refereeing.
False Consensus Effect:
Definition:
The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.
Example:
Assuming that everyone shares your political views or preferences because you believe them to be correct and valid.
Fallibility in Attribution:
People often make incorrect judgments in attributing behavior.
Additional errors include the false consensus effect, where people assume their beliefs are more widely shared than they actually are.
13.2.3 Impression Formation
Impression Formation:
Definition:
The process of forming opinions about individuals or groups.
Influenced by initial available information.
First Impressions and the Primacy Effect:
Definition:
The tendency to give more weight to initial information when forming impressions.
Once an initial impression is formed, subsequent information receives decreasing attention.
First impressions tend to be enduring and are typically formed within seconds of meeting someone.
Negative Bias in First Impressions:
Negative information is given more weight than positive information.
Negative information received first capitalizes on the primacy effect, influencing overall impression formation.
Confirmation Bias:
Definition:
The tendency to seek, interpret, and remember information that confirms our preexisting beliefs or impressions.
We attend to and process information consistent with our initial impression while ignoring or discarding contradictory evidence.
Cultural Differences in Primacy Effects:
Primacy effects in impression formation can vary across cultures.
In Western cultures, primacy effects strongly impact impression formation.
Research comparing primacy effects between individuals from the United States and Japan found that Japanese participants were less influenced by primacy effects in impression formation.
13.3 Behaving in the Presence of Others
Observe Others:
As mentioned, one effective strategy is to observe the behavior of others around you. Pay attention to how they use utensils, interact with the napkin, and engage in conversation. By observing their actions, you can emulate their behavior and align with social norms.
Follow the Lead:
Follow the lead of the executives or other individuals who appear confident and knowledgeable in their conduct. If you're unsure about which utensil to use or how to use the napkin, wait for cues from others and mimic their behavior.
Stay Calm and Confident:
Remember to stay calm and composed, even if you feel anxious or uncertain. Confidence in your demeanor can help create a positive impression, regardless of any minor slip-ups in etiquette.
Ask for Guidance:
If you're still unsure about certain aspects of formal dining etiquette, don't hesitate to discreetly ask for guidance. You can politely inquire about the proper use of utensils or the etiquette surrounding the napkin. Most people will appreciate your desire to adhere to social norms.
Practice Beforehand:
If possible, familiarize yourself with formal dining etiquette beforehand through research or practice sessions. This can help boost your confidence and alleviate anxiety about making a social blunder during the interview dinner.
Focus on the Conversation:
While it's important to adhere to social norms, remember that the primary focus of the dinner is likely the conversation and interaction with the executives. Pay attention to engaging in meaningful conversation and showcasing your qualifications for the job.
social influence
Definition:
Social influence refers to the process by which our thoughts and actions are shaped by the presence of others.
Influence on Behavior:
People behave differently in the presence of others, especially in ambiguous situations where social norms are unclear.
Individuals often look to others for cues on how to behave and conform to group norms.
Conformity and Ambiguity:
In ambiguous situations, people are more likely to behave in ways consistent with those around them.
Everyday decisions are often influenced by social norms, even if individuals are unaware of their conformity.
Example:
In a formal dining setting during an important interview, individuals may look to others for cues on proper etiquette to avoid social blunders.
Strategies for Managing Social Influence:
Observing others' behavior, following their lead, staying calm and confident, asking for guidance discreetly, practicing beforehand, and focusing on meaningful conversation can help navigate social influence in various contexts.
13.3.1 Social Norms
Definition of Social Norms:
Social norms are prescribed behaviors that vary across contexts, cultures, and time period
ds.
Variation Across Situations:
Social norms change depending on the situation. For example, behavior at a sporting event differs from behavior in a library.
Cultural Variation:
Social norms vary across cultures, with individualistic cultures emphasizing individual gains and collectivist cultures prioritizing the group's benefit.
Examples include differences between Western individualistic societies and Asian collectivist societies.
Influence of Technology on Social Norms:
Technological advancements can influence social norms. For example, changes in literature search processes due to the advent of the internet have impacted academic practices.
Changes Over Time:
Social norms evolve over time and across generations. For instance, the use of technology in classrooms has changed norms around note-taking and distractions.
Social Influence in Uncertain Situations:
In uncertain situations, individuals often rely on social cues from others to guide their behavior.
This can sometimes lead to mistaken interpretations, such as in the example of mistaking a group's behavior as a sign of a zombie apocalypse.
13.3.2 Conformity
Researcher and Experiment:
Solomon Asch conducted a conformity experiment in the early 1950s to empirically test how the presence of others influences conformity.
Definition of Conformity:
Conformity refers to the extent to which individuals modify their behavior to align with the behavior of others in a group.
Experimental Setup:
Participants were asked to complete a visual judgment exercise where they had to compare the length of a standard line to three comparison lines.
Unbeknownst to the participants, the other individuals present were research assistants (confederates) working with the experimenter.
Objective of the Experiment:
Asch was not interested in accuracy but rather in how likely participants were to conform to an obviously incorrect choice made by the confederates.
Procedure:
Each of the six confederates took turns announcing their choice of which comparison line was most similar in length to the standard line.
Experimental Setup:
Participants were asked to complete a visual judgment exercise where they had to compare the length of a standard line to three comparison lines.
Unbeknownst to the participant, the other individuals present were research assistants (confederates) instructed to unanimously provide incorrect answers.
Decision Dilemma:
Participants faced a dilemma when they observed all confederates giving the same incorrect answer.
They had to decide whether to conform to the group's incorrect response or assert their own judgment.
Findings:
Asch found that 75% of participants conformed to an obviously incorrect answer at least once during the experiment.
Over the 12 conformity trials, participants conformed 37% of the time.
The size of the group influenced conformity, with increased conformity observed when the number of confederates increased from one to three.
Neto (1995):
Found that undergraduate students demonstrated conformity levels similar to Asch's original findings.
Conformity levels were higher with larger group sizes and decreased familiarity with the task or situation.
Bond & Smith (1996):
Found that conformity rates continue to be higher with larger group sizes.
Conformity rates differ based on individual characteristics such as gender and personality traits.
Women tend to have higher rates of agreement to incorrect responses than men.
Personality traits like locus of control (LOC) also affect conformity, with those having an external LOC being more likely to conform.
Amir (1982):
Replicated Asch's original experiment in Kuwaiti culture and found consistent results, indicating the universality of the "Asch effect."
Meta-analysis by Bond & Smith (1996):
Concluded that conformity in Western cultures persists over time but has gradually decreased.
Collectivist cultures show significantly higher levels of conformity compared to individualistic cultures.
13.3.2.1 Groupthink
Definition: Groupthink, coined by Irving Janis (1972), refers to a phenomenon where groups prioritize consensus and conformity over critical thinking and divergent opinions, leading to poor decision-making.
Components of Groupthink:
Overestimating the Group: Members believe in the inherent invulnerability and morality of the group's decisions.
Closed-mindedness: Group members exhibit collective rationalization and hold stereotyped views of out-groups.
Pressure for Uniformity: Dissenters face direct pressure, self-censorship occurs, and there's an illusion of unanimity; mindguards suppress dissenting opinions.
Examples:
Pearl Harbor Attack (1941): Despite warnings of an impending attack, military officials at Pearl Harbor failed to take pre-emptive action due to groupthink. They overestimated the strength of the United States and closed their minds to the threat from Japan.
Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster (1986): Engineers raised concerns about faulty O-rings before the Challenger launch, but their warnings were ignored due to groupthink. The belief in the success of previous shuttle flights and a false sense of invulnerability led to the tragic decision to proceed with the launch.
Characteristic | Description |
|---|---|
Illusion of invulnerability | Excess optimism that increases risk-taking (Nothing could possibly go wrong) |
Collective rationalization | Minimize and/or disregard the warning of others |
Belief in inherent morality | Belief that the group is looking out for the greater good |
Stereotyped views | Hold negative views of out-groups and have high in-group favoritism |
Direct pressure on dissenters | Group members are pressured to conform and not express diverging ideas/opinions (We all agree and no one cares what you think, so keep quiet) |
Self-censorship | The illusion of a united front makes members think that their ideas are incorrect/wrong. |
Illusion of unanimity | The group appears unanimous because dissenting views are not considered. (Everyone agrees so there is nothing to discuss) |
Self-appointed ‘mindguards’ | Some group members want to protect the leader and the group by enforcing group cohesiveness and quashing dissenting ideas. |
13.3.3 Obedience to Authority
Obedience to Authority: Stanley Milgram's famous experiment in the 1960s highlighted how ordinary people could commit acts against their moral judgment when instructed by an authority figure. In Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler and the Nazi hierarchy served as the supreme authority, and their orders were often followed without question due to a perceived duty to obey.
Dehumanization: The Nazis systematically dehumanized Jews and other targeted groups, portraying them as subhuman in propaganda. This psychological distancing allowed perpetrators to rationalize their actions as they no longer perceived their victims as fellow human beings with feelings and rights.
Diffusion of Responsibility: In large bureaucratic structures like those of Nazi Germany, responsibility for actions can become diffuse. Individuals may feel less personal responsibility for outcomes when actions are divided among several people or nested within a complex organizational structure.
Conformity and the Power of the Group: As demonstrated by Solomon Asch's experiments, individuals tend to conform to group norms. In the context of Nazi Germany, nationalistic fervor, peer pressure, and the desire to belong could have further motivated individuals to align with the majority and participate in or support atrocities.
Fear of Punishment: Many Germans feared reprisals from the Nazi government if they were perceived as dissenters or non-conformists. This fear extended beyond personal harm to include threats to their families, which could coerce even reluctant individuals into compliance.
Incremental Escalation: The severity of Nazi policies escalated gradually over several years, which can desensitize individuals and normalize extreme measures. What began as discrimination and political repression slowly expanded into encompassing more severe and eventually genocidal actions.
13.3.3.1 The Milgram Experiments
Authority of the Experimenter: The presence of an authoritative figure in a lab coat, representing a prestigious institution like Yale University, plays a critical role. The authority attributed to the experimenter increases participants' willingness to follow instructions, even if those instructions lead to the infliction of pain on another person.
Gradual Escalation: The shock levels increase gradually, which might make it easier for participants to justify the next level of shock. This step-by-step escalation can desensitize participants to the consequences of their actions.
Pre-defined Roles: Participants are assigned the role of 'teacher', which comes with expectations to follow the rules of the experiment. This role-playing detaches individuals from their personal ethical standards.
Dehumanization: The physical separation between the teacher and learner, combined with the use of a communication system (intercom), reduces the empathetic connection a teacher might feel towards the learner. The learner becomes an abstract concept rather than a real human suffering from shocks.
Commitment: Having agreed to participate in the study, and having started administering shocks, participants might feel a need to complete the task they agreed to undertake. This sense of commitment can be a powerful motivator to continue obeying orders.
Lack of direct confrontation: The experimental setup shields the teacher from directly witnessing the pain they cause. The remote administration of shocks via a panel makes the act less personal and reduces the emotional impact on the teacher.
Social Pressure and Expectations: Being in a controlled environment where the expectation is to obey can significantly impact one's actions. The participant might feel that disobedience would upset the experimenter or disrupt the purpose of the study.
Participants showed significant stress, indicating that they were aware and affected by the moral implications of their actions. The appearance of nervous laughter, signs of anxiety, and even physical symptoms like seizures underscore the internal conflict between obeying authority and acting according to personal moral judgments.
Milgram's experiment, while groundbreaking, raised serious ethical questions regarding the psychological impact on participants who believed they were harming others. This led to changes in how psychological experiments are conducted, particularly those involving deception and potential harm to participants.
The results and methods of Milgram's study continue to be a cornerstone in understanding obedience and have profound implications for education, psychology, and even the understanding of historical events like the Holocaust. The experiment underscores the need for ethical vigilance and personal responsibility, particularly in situations where authority figures are involved.
Prompt Hierarchy | Verbal Prompts |
|---|---|
Prompt 1 | Please continue, or Please go on. |
Prompt 2 | The experiment requires that you continue. |
Prompt 3 | It is absolutely essential that you continue. |
Prompt 4 | You have no other choice, you must go on. |
Role of Environment: The change from a prestigious university setting to a more mundane warehouse location resulted in a decrease in obedience. This suggests that the perceived legitimacy of the environment reinforces authority. A prestigious setting like Yale may confer a higher degree of perceived legitimacy and authority than a common warehouse, affecting participant behavior.
Proximity to Consequences: When the physical distance between the teacher and the learner decreased, so did obedience. This indicates that closer proximity to the consequences of one's actions increases empathy or discomfort, which in turn reduces the likelihood of harming others. The direct interaction, such as physically placing the learner's arm on a shock plate, makes the consequences of one’s actions more immediate and real, thus lowering obedience.
Visual and Physical Cues: Seeing the pain or distress of others can invoke empathetic responses that are powerful enough to override authority obedience. This highlights the importance of empathy in ethical decision-making and behavior.
Milgram’s experiments, while illuminating, raise profound ethical questions:
Informed Consent: Participants were deceived about the nature of the experiment. This deception is critical to the experiment's design but raises concerns about the ethical treatment of participants.
Psychological Harm: The distress exhibited by participants suggests that the experiments could have had long-lasting psychological effects. Ensuring the psychological well-being of participants is a fundamental ethical requirement in research.
These experiments also provide a framework for understanding broader societal issues:
Authority in Everyday Life: The tendency to obey authority figures can be seen in various aspects of society, including in the workplace, schools, and within the legal system. Understanding the limits and influences of authority can help foster better practices in governance, education, and law enforcement.
Moral Responsibility and Authority: The experiments underscore the complex relationship between individual moral agency and authority. They challenge individuals and societies to think about how authority is exercised and questioned.
Military and Law Enforcement Training: Training that emphasizes blind obedience may need to be reevaluated to incorporate ethical decision-making skills that enable individuals to question immoral orders
13.3.5 The Bystander Effect
Incident Details: Attacked in Queens, NY; bystanders reportedly did not intervene.
Historical Impact: Led to heightened interest and research into what is now called the bystander effect.
Definition: The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present.
Reasons for Non-intervention:
Diffusion of Responsibility: Responsibility is shared among all witnesses, leading to less individual accountability.
Pluralistic Ignorance: Bystanders assume their own inaction is the correct response based on the inaction of others.
Bibb Latané and Judith Rodin (1969) - "Lady in Distress"
When alone, 70% of participants offered help.
With others present, assistance rates dropped (40% with another participant, 7% with a passive observer).
High Helping Rates in Latin Cultures: Attributes such as 'simpatia' or 'simpatico' promote a friendly, helpful demeanor, increasing the likelihood of intervention.
Context: Effectiveness of help varied based on the perceived condition of the person (drunk vs. sick).
Findings:
The "sick" individual received help 95% of the time, quickly and regardless of race.
The "drunk" individual received help 50% of the time, typically only from bystanders of the same race.
Perceived Danger: More dangerous situations see less intervention.
Presence of a Perpetrator: Reduces likelihood of bystander help.
Requirement for Physical Action: More direct physical intervention is less likely than non-physical help.
Everyday Experiments: Students may drop books to observe bystander reactions.
Emergency Situations: Directing a specific person to call for help (e.g., “You in the purple hoodie, call 911”) is more effective than a general plea for assistance.
Influence of Visible Blood: The presence of blood can deter help due to fear of infection or personal disgust.
CPR Reluctance: Individuals are less likely to perform CPR if there are bodily fluids present.
Overview: Analyzed bystander behavior across decades, confirming trends such as reduced help in dangerous situations or when a perpetrator is present.
Small Towns vs. Urban Areas: Higher likelihood of intervention in smaller, less anonymous settings due to familiar faces and stronger communal ties
13.4.2 Stereotypes
Definition of Stereotypes: Stereotypes are simplified and generalized beliefs about a group based on their perceived common characteristics. These beliefs can be positive, negative, or neutral but often involve oversimplification.
Examples of Stereotypes:
Age: Older adults are often stereotyped as being slow or technologically inept.
Gender: Men are stereotyped as being less emotional, while women are stereotyped as being less competent in STEM fields.
Race and Ethnicity: Different ethnic groups may be stereotyped based on perceived traits or behaviors.
Kernel of Truth: Some stereotypes originate from observable trends within groups, but the generalization to all members of the group is where inaccuracies and prejudices form.
Stereotype Threat:
Definition: The fear that one's behavior will confirm existing stereotypes about one's group, potentially leading to anxiety and reduced performance.
Impact on Performance: This can affect academic performance, professional interactions, and even social behavior.
Example: Women performing poorly on math tests when reminded of the stereotype that women are worse at math than men.
Homogeneity vs. Heterogeneity:
Out-group Homogeneity Effect: The tendency to view members of an out-group as more similar to each other than they really are.
In-group Differentiation: The tendency to perceive members of one’s own group as more varied and distinct.
Perpetuation of Stereotypes:
Media Influence: Stereotypes are often reinforced by media representations, which tend to highlight and exaggerate certain traits for dramatic or comedic effect.
Socialization: From a young age, individuals learn to categorize based on visible and invisible traits, perpetuating stereotypes.
Challenges in Overcoming Stereotypes:
Cognitive Biases: Stereotypes are easy mental shortcuts used to quickly make sense of complex social information.
Cultural Endorsement: Societal norms and values can embed certain stereotypes deeply within a culture.
Strategies for Reducing Stereotypes:
Education and Awareness: Promoting understanding of the diversity within groups and the inaccuracies of overgeneralization.
Intergroup Contact: Encouraging direct interaction between groups to break down stereotypes and build empathy.
Counter-Stereotypic Information: Presenting information that goes against common stereotypes can help in reshaping opinions.
13.4.3 Prejudice
Function of Stereotyping:
Cognitive Efficiency: Stereotypes simplify the complex information of social environments, allowing for quicker decision-making.
Prediction of Behavior: Helps in anticipating how individuals from certain groups might behave based on generalized beliefs.
Positive and Negative Stereotypes:
Positive Stereotypes: Some stereotypes attribute desirable qualities to certain groups (e.g., Asians are good at math, elderly people are wise).
Negative Stereotypes: Often involve detrimental or derogatory beliefs (e.g., younger people are irresponsible, wealthy people are greedy).
Definition of Prejudice:
Affective Nature: Unlike stereotypes, which are cognitive, prejudice is an affective response involving feelings towards a group.
Inherently Negative: Always involves negative attitudes and emotions towards members of a specific group.
Examples of Prejudice:
Racism: Prejudiced attitudes towards people based on race or ethnicity.
Sexism: Negative beliefs and discrimination towards individuals based on gender.
Homophobia: Hostility towards individuals who identify as or are perceived to be homosexual.
Social Learning:
Family Influence: Attitudes and prejudices are often learned early in life from parents and caregivers through direct communication or observation.
Peer Influence: As individuals grow, peers play a significant role in reinforcing or challenging these early learned prejudices.
Media and Cultural Influence:
Media Representation: Media can perpetuate stereotypes and prejudices by consistently depicting groups in a certain way.
Cultural Norms: Societal values and norms can embed prejudices deep within a community's collective consciousness.
Psychological Mechanisms:
Confirmation Bias: Individuals tend to seek out information that confirms their preexisting beliefs and ignore contradictory evidence.
In-group Favoritism and Out-group Hostility: People prefer their own group (in-group) and have negative attitudes towards others (out-group).
Education and Awareness:
Critical Thinking: Teaching critical thinking skills can help individuals question and dismantle stereotypes and prejudices.
Cultural Competence: Education programs that emphasize understanding and respecting diversity.
Interpersonal and Intergroup Contact:
Direct Interaction: Positive, meaningful interactions between members of different groups can reduce prejudices.
Shared Goals: Cooperative activities with shared objectives can foster intergroup solidarity and reduce biases.
Institutional Support:
Policies and Regulations: Enforcing anti-discrimination laws and promoting equal opportunities for all groups.
Supportive Environments: Creating environments in schools, workplaces, and communities that support diversity and inclusion.
13.4.4 Discrimination
Prejudice:
Definition: Prejudice refers to preconceived attitudes and beliefs about a group that are often not based on reason or actual experience.
Nature: Affective; involves emotions and attitudes.
Discrimination:
Definition: Discrimination involves actions or behaviors that exclude, restrict, or distinguish against individuals based on group affiliation.
Nature: Behavioral; entails actual actions taken against individuals or groups.
Legal Prohibitions Against Discrimination:
Workplace Laws: In the U.S., it is illegal to discriminate on the basis of gender, disability, age, race, religion, color, and country of origin.
Expansion of Rights: Increasing legal protections against discrimination based on sexual preference, though gaps remain, particularly for the LGBTQ+ community.
Historical Prejudices Leading to Laws:
Origins of Anti-Discrimination Laws: Stem from a long history of systemic prejudice and discrimination.
Ongoing Issues: Despite laws, discrimination persists, influenced by both overt biases and more subtle systemic factors.
Scapegoat Theory:
Definition: Proposes that prejudice stems from the need to blame others for one's own problems or inadequacies.
Application: Often seen in urban settings where minority groups may direct prejudice and discrimination toward other, even less powerful, minorities.
Realistic Conflict Theory:
Definition: Suggests that competition over scarce resources leads to intergroup conflicts.
Sherif’s Robbers Cave Experiment (1956):
Context: Conflict created between two groups of boys during a camp, escalating to hostility.
Resolution: Demonstrated that cooperation towards common goals can reduce intergroup hostility and promote positive intergroup relations.
Interdependence in Achieving Common Goals:
Practical Application: Encouraging situations where groups must collaborate to achieve shared objectives can diminish perceptions of 'us vs. them'.
Supporting Evidence: Successful reduction of conflict in controlled experiments like the Robbers Cave.
Equal Status Contact:
Theory: Contact hypothesis suggests that under conditions of equality, intergroup contact can reduce prejudice.
Implementation: Creating environments and opportunities where individuals from different groups interact as equals.
13.4.5 Interpersonal Attraction
Physical Attractiveness:
Research Finding (Walster et al., 1966): Participants overwhelmingly chose to go on a second date based solely on their date's physical attractiveness.
Online Dating: Physical appearance is a compelling determinant in selecting profiles.
Social Media Influence:
Connection vs. Depth: While social media facilitates connections, relationships formed are not necessarily deep or meaningful.
Quantity vs. Quality: Having hundreds of social media "friends" raises questions about the depth of these relationships.
Traditional Factors:
Similarity: People tend to like others who share similar ideologies and interests.
Proximity: Physical nearness plays a significant role in forming friendships and relationships.
Mere Exposure Effect: Increased exposure to a person leads to greater liking, regardless of other factors (Zajonc, 1968).
Assumed Positive Traits: Attractive individuals are often assumed to possess positive personality traits.
Association with Positive Characteristics: Beauty is strongly linked with positive attributes, contributing to initial attraction and likability.
13.5.2 Prosocial Behaviors/Altruism
Definition: Altruism involves engaging in behaviors to benefit others without expecting anything in return. It encompasses voluntary acts of kindness and selflessness.
Variability: Prosocial behaviors can range from small gestures like holding a door to significant acts like risking one's life to save another.
Cross-Species Behavior: Altruism is observed in various animal species, indicating its evolutionary significance beyond humans.
Definition: Reciprocal altruism, proposed by Trivers (1971), involves acts of kindness with the expectation of future reciprocation. It differs from pure altruism in its underlying motives.
Evolutionary Perspective: Reciprocal altruism suggests that altruistic behaviors have evolved over time due to their adaptive value.
Gender Roles: Traditional gender roles influence expectations regarding altruism, with women often expected to exhibit more nurturing and caring behaviors.
Sex-Typed Individuals: Those who conform to traditional gender roles (e.g., feminine women, masculine men) are perceived as more altruistic.
Androgynous Characteristics: Individuals with both feminine and masculine traits are perceived more positively overall and rated as more attractive.
Cognition and Altruism: Intuition plays a significant role in promoting altruism, especially in women, while men tend to deliberate before offering help.
Berman et al. (2015): Reporting acts of altruism may be perceived negatively if viewed as bragging, especially when the audience is already aware of the altruistic behaviors.
Rand et al. (2016): Gender differences in altruistic behavior are influenced by factors such as gender roles and the use of intuition vs. deliberation.
