The Road to Civil War and Reconstruction

The Election of 1844

• Key Candidates:
  • Democrats: James K. Polk
  • Whigs: Henry Clay
  • Liberty Party: James G. Birney
• Campaign Issues:
  • Focus on Polk's expansionist platform.
  • Clay's attempt to appeal to pro-expansionist voters while not alienating anti-slavery voters.
• Results:
  • Polk won, but the Liberty Party gained support.
• Texas:
  • Annexed in 1845, maintaining the free-slave state balance with Oregon's entry as a free state.
• Oregon:
  • Border dispute with unclear boundaries. Polk's negotiation set the 49th parallel as the border.
• Prelude to War with Mexico:
  • Texas border dispute (Rio Grande vs. Nueces River)

Expansion

• Polk's invasion of Matamoras and desire for California and New Mexico.
• Fremont's involvement in the Bear Flag Rebellion.
• Thornton Affair skirmish.
• Polk's declaration of war.
• War with Mexico:
  • U.S. victories in Santa Fe and California.
  • Invasion of Mexico led by Taylor and Scott.
  • Wilmot Proviso: proposed to ban slavery in territories gained from Mexico (passed in the House, defeated in the Senate).
  • Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo: U.S. gained California, New Mexico, and Texas (Rio Grande border) for $15 million.

Election of 1848

• Key Candidates:
  • Democrats: Lewis Cass (advocated Popular Sovereignty)
  • Free Soil: Martin Van Buren
  • Whigs: Zachary Taylor
• Campaign Issues:
  • Popular Sovereignty (the idea that people in a territory should decide on the issue of slavery).
• Results:
  • Taylor won; Free Soil Party gained some influence in Congress.

California Gold Rush

• Discovery of gold in 1849 led to a massive influx of people ("Forty-niners") to California.
• Hardships faced by miners.
• Economic impact and the reality that few got rich.

Expansionism

• Railroad Development:
  • Northern and territorial expansion, Southern lag.
• Mormon Migration:
  • Led by Joseph Smith to Illinois, then Brigham Young to Great Salt Lake after Smith's death.
  • Establishment of Deseret, conflict with the U.S. government over polygamy and territorial claims.
• Immigration:
  • Irish immigration due to the Great Potato Famine.
  • German immigration following the 1848 revolution.
  • Chinese immigration during the gold rush.
  • Anti-immigration sentiment and Anti-Catholicism.

Culture

• Utopian Communities:
  • Oneida Association: John Humphrey Noyes, complex marriage, birth control, communal living.
• Women's Rights:
  • Seneca Falls Convention, Declaration of Rights and Sentiments (including suffrage).
• Pop Culture:
  • Mass printing and its effects on literature and social issues.
  • Key literary works: Scarlet Letter, Moby Dick, Leaves of Grass.

Crisis of 1850

• California's statehood as a free state and the resulting debate over the balance of free/slave states.
• Key Figures:
  • John C. Calhoun: organized opposition to California statehood.
  • Henry Clay: proposed the Omnibus Bill.
  • Daniel Webster: advocated for compromise.
• Omnibus Bill (Compromise of 1850):
  • Key provisions: California as a free state, stronger Fugitive Slave Act, Popular Sovereignty in other territories.
• Passage of the Compromise:
  • Debate and opposition; key figures' deaths or resignations; Stephen A. Douglas's role in passing the bill.
• Fugitive Slave Act:
  • Provisions and its impact on the North.
• Other Slavery Concerns:
  • Minstrel shows
  • Restrictions on free blacks in some Northern states
  • Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe and its influence

Election of 1852

• Key Candidates:
  • Democrats: Franklin Pierce
  • Whigs: Winfield Scott
  • Other parties: Free Soil, Liberty, Southern Rights, Union
• Know-Nothings:
  • Anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic movement.
  • Rise and influence, particularly in Massachusetts
• Results:
  • Pierce won.

Expansion

• Pacific and Asia trade interests, desire for the Hawaiian Islands.
• Gadsden Purchase: acquisition of Mexican territory for the Southern Transcontinental Railroad.
• Cuba: attempts to purchase Cuba and the Ostend Manifesto.

Kansas-Nebraska Bill

• Proposed by Stephen A. Douglas.
• Introduced Popular Sovereignty in Kansas and Nebraska, repealing the Missouri Compromise.
• Led to division and the rise of the Republican Party.
• New Political Alignments:
  • Republican Party formed, uniting various anti-slavery groups.
  • Southern politics: Fire-eaters vs. Unionists

Status North and South

• South:
  • Pro-slavery ideology, defense of slavery as economically and socially beneficial.
  • Attempts to expand slavery (e.g., William Walker in Nicaragua), economic focus on cotton.
  • Economic and social problems: lack of urbanization, industrialization, and investment.
  • The Impending Crisis of the South by Hinton Rowan Helper.
• North:
  • Critical view of the Southern economy and society.
• Overall:
  • Both economies were strong, but the North was developing faster.

Bleeding Kansas

• Popular Sovereignty in Kansas led to conflict.
• Settlement efforts by both sides (e.g., Massachusetts Emigrant Aid Company).
• Violence: Sack of Lawrence, Pottawatomie Massacre (John Brown).
• Congressional violence: Preston Brooks's attack on Charles Sumner.
• Lecompton Constitution: controversy over pro-slavery constitution in Kansas.

Election of 1856

• Key Candidates:
  • Democrats: James Buchanan
  • Republicans: John Fremont
  • American Party (Know-Nothings): Millard Fillmore
• Republican platform and issues
• Results:
  • Buchanan won.

Dred Scott Decision

• Dred Scott's case and the Supreme Court decision.
• Key points of the decision:
  • Scott's lack of standing to sue.
  • Congress's lack of power to restrict slavery in territories (invalidating the Missouri Compromise).
• Reaction to the decision along sectional lines.

Panic of 1857

• Economic downturn, causes, and effects.
• Southern response and economic impact
• Revivals

Lincoln-Douglas Debates

• Context: Illinois Senate race.
• Key arguments and positions of Lincoln and Douglas on slavery and the future of the country.
• Aftermath and significance of the debates.

Harpers Ferry

• John Brown's raid: planning, execution, and objectives.
• Capture of the arsenal and Brown's subsequent trial and execution.
• Reactions in the North and South to the raid and Brown's actions.

The Election of 1860

• Democratic Party Split:
  • Northern Wing nominated Stephen Douglas.
  • Southern Wing nominated John Breckenridge.
• Constitutional Union Party:
  • Nominated John Bell.
  • Sought to end the agitation of slavery through compromise to preserve the Union.
• Republican Party Strategy:
  • Nominated Abraham Lincoln.
  • Appealed to both the North and the South by stating that each state could choose whether or not to allow slavery.
  • Promised protective tariffs, infrastructure plans, and free homesteads.
• Election Results:
  • Abraham Lincoln won the election, primarily securing the Northern states.

Lincoln vs. the South

• Southern Paranoia:
  • Southerners feared that Lincoln would abuse his power despite Democrats controlling the Senate and the Supreme Court.
• Secession:
  • South Carolina was the first state to secede, followed by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas.
• Birth of the Confederacy:
  • Secessionist states formed a provisional government in Montgomery, Alabama, with Jefferson Davis as President and Alexander H. Stephens as Vice President.
• Initial Reactions:
  • The North was divided on how to respond to secession.
  • The situation escalated when Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter.
• Lincoln's Stance:
  • Lincoln maintained that secession was illegal and pledged to maintain control of federal property.

Fort Sumter

• Prelude:
  • Major Robert Anderson's troops were low on supplies, leading to a tense situation.
• Attack:
  • Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter, leading to its surrender.
• Aftermath:
  • Lincoln's call for 75,000 soldiers triggered additional states to secede, including Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina, and the Civil War began.

Civil War Year Zero (Causes)

• Key Causes:
  • The Civil War resulted from interrelated factors, including slavery, states' rights, sectionalism, sectional violence, economic factors, abolitionism, expansionism, the rise of sectional political parties, the failure of compromises, ineffectual leadership, and paranoia.
• North vs. South:
  • The North had advantages in industry, finance, infrastructure, population, and naval power.
  • The South focused on fighting for its way of life.
• Leadership:
  • Lincoln and Davis had different levels of military and political experience.
• Military:
  • Both sides had issues with inexperienced generals, tactics, and logistics.
  • The South adopted a defensive strategy, while the North developed the Anaconda Plan.
• Soldier's Life:
  • Soldiers faced harsh conditions and challenges, including poor supplies and vices.
• Mobilization:
  • Both sides raised armies, with the Union having more manpower and resources.
• Technology:
  • Military technology advanced during the war, including rifling, breech-loading rifles, Gatling guns, and ironclad ships.
• Medical:
  • Medical practices were primitive, leading to high rates of death from disease.
  • Women played a significant role as nurses.
• Economy:
  • Both sides faced economic challenges in financing the war, resorting to loans, taxes, and printing money.

Civil War Year 1: 1861

• Divided States:
  • Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri, and Virginia were divided on the issue of secession, leading to internal conflict.
• Initial Combat:
  • The Union and Confederacy clashed over key locations and resources.
• Battle of Bull Run/Manassas:
  • The Confederacy won the first major battle, which had a significant impact on both sides.
• Union Military Changes:
  • Lincoln replaced military leadership.
• Confederate Home Front:
  • The Confederate government faced challenges related to labor, food production, and social inequality.
• General Ulysses S. Grant:
  • Grant led Union forces to capture key forts in Tennessee.
• Navy:
  • The Trent Affair strained relations with Britain, while the Confederacy developed new naval technologies.

Civil War Year 2: 1862

• The Ironclads:
  • The Battle of the Ironclads marked a turning point in naval warfare.
• The Peninsular Campaign:
  • McClellan's campaign to capture Richmond was ultimately unsuccessful.
• The Battle of Shiloh:
  • Grant's forces clashed with Confederate troops in a bloody battle.
• The Battle of New Orleans:
  • The Union Navy captured New Orleans, gaining control of key parts of the Mississippi River.
• Confederate Draft:
  • The Confederacy implemented a draft to bolster its army.
• Assault on Richmond:
  • Union assaults on Richmond were unsuccessful.
• Slavery:
  • The issue of slavery became more central to the war, with debates over emancipation and the role of escaped slaves.
• 2nd Manassas/Bull Run:
  • Confederate forces attacked Union troops, leading to another Confederate victory.
• Battle of Antietam:
  • Lee's invasion of Maryland led to a bloody battle and influenced European powers' stance on the war.
• Emancipation Proclamation:
  • Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring the freedom of slaves in Confederate territories.
• Rest of the Year:
  • Military leadership changes and continued battles marked the end of the year.

Civil War Year 3: 1863

• Confederate Economic Problems:
  • The Confederacy faced economic hardships and internal dissent.
• Union Problems:
  • The Union also faced political opposition and challenges with conscription.
• Black Soldiers:
  • Black soldiers enlisted in the Union Army and played a crucial role in several battles.
• Vicksburg:
  • Grant's forces laid siege to Vicksburg and eventually captured the city.
• Battle of Chancellorsville:
  • Confederate forces defeated Union troops but suffered the loss of Stonewall Jackson.
• Battle of Gettysburg:
  • Lee's invasion of Pennsylvania led to a major battle and a turning point in the war.
• Gettysburg Address:
  • Lincoln delivered the Gettysburg Address, emphasizing the broader ideals of the war.
• New York Draft Riots:
  • Conscription led to violent protests in New York City.
• Battle of Chattanooga:
  • Union forces gained control of Chattanooga.
• European Neutrality:
  • England and France decided to remain neutral in the conflict.

Civil War Year 4: 1864

• Politics:
  • Lincoln's Reconstruction plan and political opposition within both the Union and the Confederacy shaped the political landscape.
• Prisons:
  • Prisoner of war camps, such as Andersonville, became notorious for their harsh conditions.
• Naval Warfare:
  • The Confederacy used new technologies like submarines.
• Continued Fighting:
  • Grant and Lee's armies engaged in major battles, and Union forces gained control of the Shenandoah Valley.
• Election of 1864:
  • Lincoln was re-elected.
• Sherman's March to the Sea:
  • Sherman's forces implemented a scorched-earth policy, devastating Georgia.

Civil War Year 5: 1865

• End of the War:
  • Sherman's march continued in the Carolinas, and Confederate forces eventually surrendered at Appomattox.

Assassination

• Lincoln's Assassination:
  • Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, leading to a conspiracy and unanswered questions.

Cost of the War

• Casualties and Economic Impact:
  • The war resulted in significant casualties and economic devastation, particularly in the South.

The Aftermath of Emancipation

• Challenges for Freed Slaves:
  • Many freed slaves were unsure of what to do.
• Southern Slave-Owners' Fears:
  • Some feared revenge from black soldiers.
  • Many fled to Latin America.
  • Others adapted by offering wages or crop portions to former slaves for their labor.
• The Freedmen's Bureau:
  • They provided food, medicine, and clothing and established new courts.
  • The Freedmen's Bureau assisted both displaced whites and blacks in the South.
• Black Mobilization:
  • They sought equality and voting rights.
  • Former slaves and free blacks organized to discuss their future, emphasizing church and school.
  • Some stayed on plantations, while others sought to reunite with family.
  • Some entered into wage arrangements with former slave owners.
  • The promise of land was sometimes revoked as land was returned to previous owners.

Andrew Johnson and Presidential Reconstruction

• Andrew Johnson's Position:
  • Johnson was a moderate Southerner and pro-Union, which led to distrust from both sides.
  • His primary concern was preserving the Union, and he sought the support of white Southerners.
• Johnson's Executive Acts:
  • He restored political, civil, and property rights, protecting them from seizure and treason charges.
  • Johnson issued an Amnesty for the Oath of Loyalty.
  • He issued 7,000 pardons.
  • His policies did not include provisions for black voting rights but counted blacks fully, increasing Southern representation.
• Southern Reaction:
  • They refused to fly the U.S. flag, ratify the 13th Amendment, or acknowledge the illegality of secession.
  • Southern conventions demonstrated defiance.
  • The Black Codes were a major point of contention, as they severely limited the rights of former slaves.
• Northern Reaction:
  • The North blamed Johnson for the Southern reaction.
  • Some called for land seizures and universal suffrage for blacks, but most wanted to support the Freedmen's Bureau.
• Johnson vs. Congress I:
  • Congress passed the Civil Rights Bill, defining citizenship and granting equal rights (excluding voting rights).
  • Johnson vetoed the Civil Rights Bill and the Freedmen's Bureau Bill, citing states' rights.
  • Congress overrode the vetoes.

The 14th Amendment

• The 14th Amendment guaranteed citizenship to all American-born people.
• It stipulated that if any state restricted voting rights of males over 21, their representation would be reduced.
• It was the first amendment to specify gender.

The Ku Klux Klan

• The Ku Klux Klan was founded in Tennessee in 1866 by Nathan Bedford Forest.
• The Klan aimed to maintain white supremacy through intimidation and violence.
• It acted as the unofficial military wing of the Democrat Party.
• The Klan targeted whites and blacks who supported Republicans and black rights.

Congress and Military Reconstruction

• Republicans gained seats in Congress after Johnson's denunciations.
• Congress debated issues like voting rights, land distribution, courts, education, and placing the South under martial law.
• The Military Reconstruction Act was passed on March 2, 1867.
• The South was placed under martial law, divided into 5 military districts (except Tennessee).
• States were required to hold new conventions and create constitutions that accepted and ratified the 14th Amendment to re-enter the Union.
• Radical Republicans aimed to establish biracial governments in the South.
• This initiative faced problems, including its limitation to the South, and the inexperience and lack of education among former slaves in government.
• This naiveté led to corruption.
• Congress vs. Johnson II:
  • Congress passed laws to limit presidential power, including the Tenure in Office Act.
  • Johnson violated the Tenure in Office Act by removing Secretary of War Edwin Stanton.
  • Congress impeached Johnson.
  • The impeachment failed by one vote.

The South Under Reconstruction

• The Republicans:
  • Black Southerners became leaders and the backbone of the Republican Party in the South.
  • White Northerners, called Carpetbaggers, came to the South to aid in Reconstruction.
  • White Southerner Republicans, called Scalawags, were seen as traitors.
  • The Republicans had a poor footing in plantation counties but a stronger base in certain regions.
  • The Republican coalition was an alliance of convenience, with blacks desiring government services and whites seeking lower taxes.
  • Black voters were mobilized, but black delegates were still a minority.
  • A Democratic surge occurred in the 1867 elections due to Republican overreach on black rights.

Purchase of Alaska

• Secretary of State William Seward purchased Alaska from Russia.
• The purchase was initially viewed as "Seward's Folly".

Election of 1868

• Democrats nominated Horatio Seymour, who promoted racial bigotry and white supremacy.
• Republicans nominated Ulysses S. Grant, who campaigned on "Let us have peace" rather than Reconstruction issues.
• Grant won the election.

15th Amendment

• The 15th Amendment prohibited federal and state governments from restricting voting rights based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
• Literacy tests and property requirements persisted in some states.

The Grant Administration

• Grant aimed for a calm term and to follow Congressional law.
• His lack of political experience led to a loss of presidential authority.
• Reconstruction and black rights became increasingly unpopular.
• Many states came back into the Union but under Democratic control.
• Grant's attempts at nonpartisanship and delegation of authority led to scandals.
• Scandals:
  • The Jay Gould and Jim Fisk gold market manipulation.
  • Involvement of Grant's family in the gold market scandal.
• Expansion Attempts:
  • A treaty to annex the Dominican Republic was rejected by Congress.
  • Grant backed away from plans to take Cuba.
  • Charles Sumner attempted to leverage maritime losses from the C.S.S. Alabama to acquire Canada, but the State Department brokered a deal without Canada.

Congressional Issues

• Congressional debates focused on protective tariffs, the gold standard, the silver standard, the merit vs. spoil system, and civil service reform.
• The Liberal Republican faction emerged, advocating for smaller government, lower tariffs, civil service reform, and an end to Reconstruction.
• Grant aligned with Radical Republicans and dismissed dissenting cabinet members.
• Liberal Republicans and Democrats gained seats, weakening the Radical Republican control of Congress.

Life Under Reconstruction

• The KKK:
  • This showed the effectiveness of stern action, but the political will was waning.
  • The KKK and similar groups used violence against blacks and Republicans.
  • The North was reluctant to use military force to stop the Klan.
  • Congress passed laws to curb election fraud and coercion, but they had little impact.
  • The Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 aimed to suppress the Klan.
  • The Justice Department took action against the Klan, leading to indictments and forcing the Klan underground.
• Railway Expansion:
  • Transcontinental railroad construction increased.
  • States established railroad commissions to regulate rates.
  • Railroad companies challenged these regulations in the Supreme Court.
• Farmers' Tensions:
  • Farmers experienced tensions with industry and formed groups like The Grange to protect their interests.

Native Americans

• Grant pursued a "peace policy" despite settlers' desire for Native American removal or extinction.
• The Board of Indian Commissioners was created to establish reservations and assimilate Native Americans.
• Problems arose due to the demand for land and the destruction of buffalo herds.
• Resistance to the peace policy led to conflict.
• The discovery of gold in the Black Hills led to military intervention.
• Chiefs Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull organized resistance, leading to the Battle of Little Big Horn.
• Despite initial victories, the Native Americans were ultimately pushed back.

Women

• Suffrage leaders like Susan B. Anthony advocated for women's suffrage.
• Wyoming granted women's suffrage in 1869 to attract settlers.
• Education expanded for women.
• The Supreme Court blocked women from practicing law and held that suffrage was not part of citizenship.
• Women formed voluntary associations to influence public policy, such as the Temperance movement.
• Laws regarding divorce, birth control, and abortion aimed to maintain the traditional family unit.

Election of 1872

• Democrats and Liberal Republicans nominated Horace Greeley.
• Republicans nominated Grant, who won the election.

Scandal II

• The Credit Mobilier scandal involved bribery of members of Congress.
• The Salary Grab Act, which retroactively increased congressional pay, was repealed due to public outrage.
• The Whiskey Ring involved Treasury Department officials accepting bribes to avoid collecting whiskey taxes.

Panic of 1873

• The banking house of Jay Cooke and Company failed due to railroad bond speculation.
• The failure triggered a broader economic downturn with widespread company failures and unemployment.
• Grant vetoed congressional attempts to inject inflation into the market.

Failure of Reconstruction

• The Panic of 1873 led to a decline in the Grant administration and Justice Department’s efforts in Reconstruction and KKK prosecutions.
• Reconstruction was widely viewed as a failure due to the perceived failure to establish a successful multiracial government and the corruption of Reconstruction governments.
• Democrats regained control, or “Redeemed,” states from Republican dominance, often through violence.

The Centennial Year and the End of Reconstruction

• The Centennial Year, marked by celebrations like the Centennial International Exhibition, showcased innovations like the telegraph.
• Election of 1876:
  • Democrats nominated Samuel Tilden, advocating for ethical governance.
  • Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes, employing "waving the bloody shirt" tactics.
  • The election was contested, with disputes in several states.
  • An electoral commission was formed to resolve the disputed votes.
  • Hayes won the election after a compromise that included ending military intervention in the South.
  • The end of military intervention marked the end of Reconstruction.